Before Spanish colonization in the 1500s, Islam had already spread throughout the southern Philippines, particularly Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, brought by Arabian merchants and missionaries. Islam is the second-largest religion in the Philippines. The indigenous people who converted to Islam formed sultanates and developed distinct cultural identities, becoming known as Moros. Those who did not convert retained their traditions and are referred to as non-Moros or Lumad people.

The Abusan Manobo, one of Mindanao's oldest Lumad groups, lived in forested and riverine areas of what is now Agusan del Sur and Norte. They are believed to be descendants of early Austronesian settlers. Their society was closely tied to nature, practicing sustainable agriculture, hunting, and fishing. Their communities were led by a 'datu,' and their culture was rich in oral traditions, myths, and epics. Despite Spanish colonial efforts and later challenges from migration, logging, and mining, they have largely preserved their cultural language and traditions.

The Baja, also known as Sama Dilah or 'sea gypsies,' are an indigenous group in the coastal areas of Mindanao, primarily Tawi-Tawi, Sulu, Basilan, and parts of Zamboanga. Traditionally nomadic sea-bearers living on houseboats or stilt houses, they are known for their unique free-diving and fishing skills. Originally animists, many converted to Islam, though traditional sea rituals persist. They avoided Spanish influence by living at sea and remained marginalized during American rule. Today, many have settled in coastal communities but face poverty and discrimination. Some can dive over 20 meters deep without equipment.

The Banging, an ethnolinguistic group with ancestral roots in the Malay maritime world, originated from the Sama people in Banging Island, Sulu. They are expert sailors, traders, and boat builders, specifically known for their 'vinta' and 'garay' war boats. They practiced Islam before Spanish arrival and often served the Sulu Sultanate as sailors or warriors. The Spanish labeled them 'pirates' due to their sea raids, which were acts of defense and economic survival against colonial incursions. Today, they continue to live in Sulu, Basilan, and Zamboanga, preserving their maritime heritage.

The Ilanon, closely related to the Maranao and Maguindanao, are an Austronesian maritime people from the coastal areas of Mindanao. Known as skilled sailors, fishermen, and warriors, they built large warships called 'lanong' for trade, exploration, and warfare. They embraced Islam as early as the 14th century and were among the first to resist Spanish colonialization, often joining forces with the Tausug and Maguindanao in maritime raids. Today, they are recognized as one of the 13 Moro ethnolinguistic groups within the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region, known for their rich maritime heritage and bravery.

The Sama Mapun are native inhabitants of Mapun (Kagayan Mapun) and the Turtle Islands, as well as northern Palawan. Their name, meaning 'people of Mapun,' reflects their origin. They are a Sama-speaking people, widely known for their creativity and traditions, primarily living as farmers and fishers. Devout Muslims, they also maintained older beliefs in ancestral spirits. They were never fully colonized by the Spanish due to strong resistance and their remote location. Today, they preserve their traditional customs and autonomy, recognized as one of the 13 Moro ethnolinguistic groups.

The Kalagan are an Islamic indigenous group in the western Davao area, believed to have converted to Islam in the mid-19th century through interaction with Tausug and Maguindanao migrants. They are renowned as agriculturalists and coastal fishers, led by 'datu' and 'imams.' Their culture blends Islamic teachings with traditional animist beliefs. They resisted Spanish conversion efforts by retreating inland and forming alliances with Muslim sultanates. Recognized as one of the 13 Moro ethnolinguistic groups, they serve as a cultural bridge between Lumad and Moro cultures.

The Kolibuagan are found mainly in the Zamboanga Peninsula. Their name, meaning 'mixed' or 'half-breed' in Tausug, refers to their mixed ancestry, primarily from Subanon and Muslim groups. Their culture is a blend of indigenous and Islamic influences, and they are mainly farmers, fishermen, and traders. Originally animists, they gradually adopted Islam through intermarriage and contact with Muslim groups. They resisted Spanish control and formed alliances with other Muslim groups. Today, they identify as Muslim Subanon, recognized as one of the 13 Moro ethnolinguistic groups.

The Maguindanao are an ethnolinguistic Moro group primarily living in the Maguindanao provinces along the Pulangi River basin. Their name means 'people of the flood plain.' Shahit Kabungsuan, an Arab-Malay missionary, established the Sultanate of Maguindanao in the 16th century, one of the most powerful Islamic states in the Philippines. They were farmers, traders, and fishers with a complex social structure led by a Sultan and Datus. They fiercely resisted Spanish attempts to conquer Mindanao, forming alliances with other Moro groups. Today, they remain strongly Islamic and culturally distinct, playing a central role in the Bangsamoro movement.

The Maranao, meaning 'people of the lake,' live around Lake Lanao in Lanao del Sur and Norte. They trace their roots to early Malay settlers and formed sultanates governed by Islamic law and local customs. They embraced Islam before Spanish arrival and are famous for their 'okir' designs, elaborate carvings found in their 'torogan' (royal houses), and the 'Darangen' epic, a UNESCO masterpiece. They strongly resisted Spanish colonization, with their mountainous heartland providing natural defense. Today, they preserve their Islamic and local identity and have been active in the Bangsamoro movement.

The Samal, also spelled Sama, are part of the larger Sama linguistic group, mainly inhabiting the Sulu Archipelago, Basilan, Tawi-Tawi, and coastal areas. They are coastal dwellers involved in fishing, pearl diving, seaweed farming, and small-scale trade, also known for their boat-building skills. Originally animists, they converted to Islam from the 14th to 15th centuries. They were important allies of the Sulu Sultanate and resisted Spanish colonization. They maintained their Islamic faith, language, and sea-based traditions, with the Spanish having limited control over the Sulu zone. Today, they are recognized as one of the 13 Moro ethnolinguistic groups.

The Sangil people originated from the Sangir Islands between Mindanao and Sulawesi, establishing settlements in southern Mindanao long before colonial times. Their language, Sangil, is closely related to Indonesian languages. They are primarily subsistent fishers and lowland farmers, also skilled in boat building. Originally animists, they adopted Islam and resisted Spanish attempts at conversion, joining other Moro groups in defense. Many migrated or were displaced during colonial periods. Today, they primarily live in Sarangani Province, preserving their culture and language, though some have converted to Christianity.

The Tausug, meaning 'people of the current,' are native to the Sulu Archipelago, establishing the Sultanate of Sulu in the 15th century—one of the earliest organized Islamic states in the Philippines. They are descendants of Malay and Arab settlers who embraced Islam around the 13th century. The Sultanate, founded by Shahib Alhazim, was a powerful Islamic kingdom. The Tausug were skilled seafarers, traders, pearl divers, and warriors, fiercely resisting Spanish colonization for over 300 years. They played key roles in Moro resistance movements and the creation of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region.

The Yakan people are indigenous to Basilan Island, with their name meaning 'to go inland or to the mountains.' Traditionally farmers and weavers, they are known for their vibrant handwoven textiles. Originally animists, they became devout Muslims through Tausug and Arab missionaries. They resisted Spanish efforts to control Basilan and often found themselves caught in conflicts. They maintain their language, clothing patterns, and weaving traditions. Today, the Yakan are recognized as one of the 13 Moro ethnolinguistic groups, with their weaving being world-famous for its bright geometric patterns and symbolic meaning.

The discussion presented only a glimpse into Mindanao's rich and diverse cultural heritage. Many other groups remain undiscovered or less documented, highlighting that our understanding of Mindanao is continually growing. Every community, regardless of size, deserves recognition and respect for its unique contributions to the region's vibrant tapestry of cultures.