Chapter 12: Worlds of the 15th Century

The lecture begins by introducing Strayer's chapter 12, focusing on the worlds of the 15th century, symbolized by Christopher Columbus's first encounter with New World natives. It then discusses enduring human communities, even as they became a smaller percentage of the global population. These include Paleolithic foragers, who, despite being non-literate and non-urban, had evolving societies. Examples provided are the Aboriginal peoples of Australia, who engaged in complex trade networks, and the Pacific Northwest tribes, known for complex foraging due to abundant food sources.

The video moves on to agricultural villagers, highlighting their social and economic sophistication without large political systems, instead relying on kinship. The Ebo people of West Africa are presented as an example, trading with nearby kingdoms despite lacking their own state. In central New York, agricultural shifts led to population growth and warfare among former hunter-gatherers, eventually forming the Iroquois Confederacy, which influenced the US founding fathers. Finally, nomadic pastoralists are discussed, with Timur (Tamerlane) of Central Asia being the last great warrior nomad leader, whose empire eventually faced expansion from Russia and China. The Fulbe people of Africa, nomadic cattle herders, are also mentioned for their eventual conversion to Islam and state-building movements.

By the end of the post-classical era, most of the world's population lived in civilizations, with China and Europe being major examples. In China, the Ming Dynasty replaced the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. Emperor Yongul sponsored projects like public works, building a new capital, overseas missions, and a large encyclopedia to re-establish Chinese identity and Confucianism. The Ming Dynasty saw significant economic growth and a reinvigoration of maritime trade, notably through Admiral Zheng He's massive expeditions into the Indian Ocean. However, these voyages were abruptly halted in the 1430s, a 'fateful decision' that shifted China's focus inward.

Europe, recovering from the Black Death, saw population expansion around 1450 but faced lingering social and economic consequences. Unlike centralized China, Europe was divided into many warring states, exemplified by the Hundred Years' War. The Renaissance, originating in northern Italy, revived Greco-Roman art and philosophy, emphasizing humanism as a challenge to church spiritualism. Europe's political landscape by 1500 began to resemble modern Western Europe. In maritime exploration, Portugal initiated voyages in 1415, culminating in Vasco da Gama reaching India in 1497, seeking routes to Asia bypassing the Ottoman Empire. Columbus sailing for Spain reached the Americas in 1492.

A key comparison highlights the stark differences between Chinese and European maritime expeditions. Zheng He's fleets were massive, with hundreds of ships and tens of thousands of men, whereas Iberian expeditions involved a few ships and about a hundred crew members, reflecting China's existing wealth and lack of need for overseas expansion. China, being centralized, could easily halt its voyages. Conversely, fragmented and competitive Europe was desperate to expand, driven by economic opportunities for merchants, tax revenues for monarchs, and spreading faith for the church. These 'push factors' encouraged European exploration.

The Islamic world, Dar al-Islam, transformed, consolidating into four major empires by the end of the 15th century. The Ottoman Empire, a colossal power, ended the Byzantine Empire by conquering Constantinople in 1453 and expanded into Europe. The Safavid Dynasty in Persia emerged as a rival, promoting Shia Islam, leading to sectarian conflict with the Sunni Ottomans. On the frontiers, the Songhai Empire in West Africa blended Islam with African traditions, and the Mughal Empire in India brought political unity to a Hindu-majority region, promoting diverse cultural life and trade.

Beyond Afro-Eurasia, significant civilizations emerged in the Americas. The Aztecs, inheritors of Central Mexican traditions, settled on Lake Texcoco by 1325, building a massive city, Tenochtitlan, through military power and alliances. Their empire was conquest-based, demanding tribute including foodstuffs, luxury items, and human slaves. Human sacrifice was prevalent, serving both religious and political functions. Further south, the Inca Empire also grew from a marginal group to rule a vast territory, using a developed state bureaucracy, resettling conquered peoples, and promoting the Quechua language. The Inca exacted a labor tax (Mita system) instead of human tribute, and their society had a parallel gender structure.

By the end of the 15th century, the 'Old World' (Eurasia) was extensively connected, while the American system was expanding. This web of connections was driven by empires, religion (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism), and established trade routes (Trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, Silk Road, Mediterranean), which were further extended by new maritime routes. Despite these connections, the globe was not yet fully linked, existing as 'old world' and 'new world' networks. The Colombian Exchange would soon integrate these, initiating a global system. European technological advances, industrialization, population growth, urbanization, and literacy would lead to a 'modern revolution,' characterized by the rise of Europe and global challenges to non-European societies.

The lecture concludes by considering historical contingency—how minor events could have drastically altered history. Three examples are presented: the death of Ogedei Khan, which prompted the Mongol withdrawal from Europe and opened diplomatic channels; the Ming Dynasty's decision in 1433 to scuttle its powerful fleet, halting China's maritime expansion and potentially preventing them from discovering the Americas or preventing European voyages; and the Ottoman Turks' failed siege of Vienna, which could have led to their deep penetration into Western Europe. These 'what if' scenarios emphasize that history is not linear and had many possible outcomes, a crucial perspective when studying the past.