Summary
Highlights
Franklin Roosevelt dies on April 13, 1945, thrusting Vice President Harry Truman into the presidency during World War II. Truman, a former salesman with little international political experience, expresses his overwhelming sense of responsibility. One month after his arrival, the Allies win the war in Europe, and despite public celebrations, Winston Churchill foresees conflict with Stalin due to Soviet expansionism in Eastern Europe, contrary to Yalta agreements. Truman, initially supportive of Allied commitments, gradually starts to recognize the threat.
In July 1945, Truman attends the Potsdam Conference in Berlin, observing the devastation of the city. He meets Stalin and Churchill for the first time, quickly realizing Stalin's shrewdness. Truman feels a sense of strength, awaiting news of a top-secret event: the atomic bomb. Upon receiving a coded telegram confirming a successful test, Truman informs Stalin, who, despite having intelligence on the project through spies like Klaus Fuchs, outwardly congratulates him. Stalin, feeling vulnerable, immediately prioritizes developing a Soviet atomic bomb. Meanwhile, Churchill loses the British election to Clement Attlee, leaving Truman and Stalin as the two dominant world powers.
Five days after Potsdam, Truman decides to use the atomic bomb against Japan. The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki shock the world and provoke Stalin, who interprets them as an American attempt to assert dominance. Truman's firm refusal to allow Stalin to occupy Hokkaido further strains relations. Stalin escalates his influence in Europe, installing communist regimes. George Kennan's 'Long Telegram' in February 1946 alerts Truman to the USSR's 'neurotic attitude' and emphasizes the need for firmness. Truman uses Churchill to deliver the 'Iron Curtain' speech in Fulton, Missouri, effectively preparing American public opinion for a confrontation with their former ally, Stalin.
Europe, still devastated after the war, faces widespread poverty, making it susceptible to communist ideologies. In early 1947, a report by Mike Mansfield paints a grim picture, prompting Truman to initiate the Marshall Plan—a massive aid package for Europe aimed at economic recovery and curbing the spread of communism. Stalin rejects the Marshall Plan for Eastern European countries, viewing it as 'enslavement' and forcing them to decline aid. Berlin becomes a flashpoint due to its divided occupation. The Western powers' decision to merge their zones and introduce the Deutsche Mark angers Stalin, who, on June 24, 1948, imposes a blockade on West Berlin.
Truman responds to the Berlin Blockade not with force, but with the Berlin Airlift, supplying West Berlin by air. For a year, American and British planes deliver essential goods, demonstrating Western resolve. Stalin, unwilling to risk direct conflict due to American atomic superiority, lifts the blockade on May 12, 1949. This event strengthens the bond between West Germany and the Western Allies, leading to the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany, followed by the Soviet response of establishing the German Democratic Republic, formally dividing Germany.
To the West's astonishment, the Soviet Union detonates its own atomic bomb on August 29, 1949, thanks to intelligence from spies like Klaus Fuchs. This achievement ushers in the 'balance of terror,' transforming yesterday's allies into official enemies. Raymond Aron aptly describes this as an 'impossible war, improbable peace.' The first proxy conflict erupts in 1950 in Korea, divided at the 38th parallel. North Korean leader Kim Il-sung, encouraged by a misstep in a speech by US Secretary of State Dean Acheson, launches an invasion of South Korea. Truman quickly commits US forces, seeing it as a crucial stand against a potential Third World War.
The Korean War becomes a stalemate, with Chinese 'volunteers' intervening to support North Korea, careful to avoid direct state conflict with the US. Truman experiences significant psychological strain. On March 1, 1953, Joseph Stalin, increasingly paranoid, suffers a cerebral hemorrhage and dies after four days of agony. His death shocks the world, inspiring both relief and uncertainty about the future. However, the deep ideological chasm and years of conflict between the US and the USSR ensured that the Cold War would continue to shape global affairs for decades to come.
In February 1945, with Nazi Germany on the verge of defeat, Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill meet at Yalta in Crimea to shape the post-war world. The journey itself highlights the physical struggles of Roosevelt and Churchill, and Stalin's strategic arrangements. The conference, marked by underlying tensions, focuses on the fate of Germany, Poland, the United Nations, and the war against Japan. Each leader pursues their own interests, with Stalin leveraging the Red Army's military successes in Eastern Europe to gain the upper hand.
Formal negotiations begin with Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, along with their key advisors. The discussion on Germany reveals Allied differences, particularly concerning reparations and the division of the country. Churchill pushes for a French occupation zone, and Stalin uses this as leverage for higher German reparations. The Polish question proves the most contentious, as Stalin desires a 'friendly' communist government, while Churchill advocates for a free and independent Poland, and Roosevelt considers the Polish-American vote. Espionage plays a significant role, with Russian intelligence having infiltrated Allied circles and bugged the conference venues, giving Stalin a decided advantage in negotiations.
Stalin's intelligence allows him to anticipate his allies' concessions, particularly on Poland. Churchill, needing Stalin's cooperation regarding British influence in Greece (as outlined in a secret Moscow agreement), is willing to compromise on Poland. Consequently, Roosevelt and Churchill reluctantly agree to recognize the communist government in Lublin, albeit with promises of free elections. In exchange for Soviet entry into the war against Japan, Roosevelt makes territorial concessions to Stalin at the expense of China, securing his key war objective but later facing criticism. Despite the appearance of Allied unity, the Yalta agreements are fragile compromises based on individual interests. Shortly after the conference, Stalin violates the agreements by fostering communist takeovers in Romania and rejecting non-communist ministers in Poland. Roosevelt, deeply dismayed by Stalin's actions, dies shortly after sending a critical telegram. Churchill, soon to lose power, watches helplessly as the promises of Yalta unravel, marking the true beginning of the Cold War.