Summary
Highlights
The video opens with the iconic image of the 300 Spartans at Thermopylae in 480 BC, setting the stage for the conflict. The events leading to this second Persian invasion are traced back to the first invasion in 492 BC, which, under Darius, re-conquered Thrace and subjugated Macedon. However, the defeat of Persian forces at Marathon around a decade before Thermopylae prevented further conquest of mainland Greece. Darius' successor, Xerxes, inherited the ambition to subdue the Greeks. Xerxes, as a maternal grandson of Cyrus the Great, ascended to the throne and, after quelling revolts in Egypt and Babylonia, prepared his massive overland campaign against Greece, demonstrating he was far from the 'coward' often depicted by Herodotus.
The narrative shifts to King Leonidas of Sparta, highlighting the unique Spartan society. Sparta, formed from an amalgamation of villages, rose to prominence through the subjugation of the Messenian helots. Their government was a peculiar dual monarchy, with two kings, an assembly of citizens (apella), a council of elders (Gerousia), and annually elected ephors. Sparta's policy moved from direct conquest to forming strong diplomatic bonds through the Peloponnesian League. Leonidas, around sixty years old, became king nine years before Thermopylae and led the 300 Spartans out during a religious festival.
Opposition to the Persians coalesced into the Hellenic League, primarily Sparta and her Peloponnesian allies, along with Athens. Thessaly initially joined but withdrew after realizing the overwhelming size of Xerxes's army. The remaining allies chose Thermopylae as their stand, while the Greek fleet positioned itself off Euboia. Xerxes's army, estimated to be in the hundreds of thousands (though not the millions claimed by Herodotus), began its advance in spring 480 BC. The superior Persian fleet was severely damaged by storms, and further detachments were lost in another storm, allowing the Greek fleet to engage the reduced Persian forces but suffering significant losses themselves, eventually withdrawing to Salamis.
Leonidas prepared his men at Thermopylae, a naturally narrow pass. The pass was particularly constricted at three points, with the Middle Gate offering strategic advantages due to a sheer cliff on its left flank. The Phocian Wall, though in disrepair, was hastily refortified. The Anopaia Path, a way around the Greek position, was guarded by a thousand Phocians. Xerxes's scout observed the Spartans calmly preparing for battle, combing their hair, a privilege for adult Spartans. Xerxes demanded the Greeks lay down their arms, to which Leonidas famously replied, "Molon Labe" ("Come and get them!").
Xerxes, angered by the defiance, ordered his Median and Kissian forces to attack. The narrow terrain negated the Persian numerical superiority, allowing the Greeks to fight in their phalanx formation, using their longer spears and superior armor effectively. The Greeks also employed a feigned retreat strategy to disrupt Persian formations. Xerxes then sent his elite Immortals, but even they, despite their reputation and numbers, could not dislodge the Greek defenders. The second day of fighting mirrored the first, with the Greeks fighting in relays, slowly taking casualties but holding their ground.
Frustration mounted for Xerxes until a local man, Ephialtes, revealed the Anopaia Path. Xerxes sent all his Immortals to take the Greeks from the rear. The thousand Phocians guarding the path were overwhelmed, mistakenly believing they were the primary target and retreating, allowing the Immortals to continue their march. Leonidas learned of the impending encirclement from deserters and his own lookouts.
Leonidas, facing certain defeat and honoring a prophecy that either Sparta would be laid waste or a Spartan king would fall, sent most of his army away, remaining with the 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans. He advanced his position to a wider area, ordering an all-out charge. Desperate fighting ensued, with Greeks using swords and even hands and teeth when their spears broke. Leonidas fell, and a fierce battle raged over his body. The Immortals finally arrived from the rear, completing the encirclement. The remaining Greeks, except for some Thebans who surrendered, withdrew to a hillock and were eventually overwhelmed by arrows. Thermopylae became a symbol of heroic last stands, but its immediate aftermath saw the burning of Athens and continued Persian advance.
After Thermopylae, Xerxes burned Athens, avenging himself for the burning of the Temple of Cybele and his father's defeat at Marathon. Simultaneously, a crucial naval battle unfolded at Salamis. The Greek fleet, under the nominal command of Eurybiades but with Themistocles as a key strategist, debated where to fight. Themistocles advocated for the narrow Straits of Salamis, arguing it would negate Persian numerical superiority and maneuverability. He even manipulated Xerxes into initiating the battle there by sending a false message. Despite Artemesia's wise counsel against a naval engagement, Xerxes, eager for a decisive victory, committed his fleet.
On the morning of the battle, the Greek fleet of around 365 ships faced Xerxes's much larger fleet, estimated to be around 500 vessels in the initial assault. Xerxes watched from a golden throne. The Greeks formed a curved line, while the Persians, packed tightly in the narrow straits, became disorganized. The battle quickly devolved into close-quarters, hand-to-hand combat, favoring the heavily armored Greek hoplites. The Persian numerical advantage became a hindrance, as their ships collided and became vulnerable. Artemesia, a Persian queen, cleverly escaped by ramming a friendly ship, leading Xerxes to mistakenly praise her. By evening, the Persian fleet was routed, with heavy losses, especially among their many non-swimming sailors. Though Xerxes still had a large army, the defeat at Salamis, coupled with the threat of being cut off from his empire, led to his withdrawal.
After Salamis, the Greek fleet pursued the Persians, who sailed to Samos. Xerxes returned to Asia, leaving Mardonius with a substantial army to finish the conquest of Greece. Mardonius attempted to sway Athens with tempting peace offers, pledging to repair damages and expand their territory. The Athenians, however, rejected these offers, emboldened by their defiance and their trust in the gods. The Spartans initially delayed mobilizing, focused on rebuilding defenses at the Isthmus, but were convinced by Tegean Chileus that their wall would be useless without the Athenian fleet. This prompted the Spartans to mobilize their forces, including 5,000 citizens and 35,000 helots, heading north to confront Mardonius.
Mardonius, informed of the Greek mobilization, withdrew to Thebes, a friendly Medized city. He fortified a camp along the Asopus River, deploying his army across an eight-kilometer front. The combined Greek forces, including Spartans, Athenians, and other allies, swore the 'Oath of Plataea' and advanced into Boeotia, staying on higher ground. A reduced Greek fleet repositioned to safeguard the coastline. Both sides made sacrifices, with omens predicting victory for the defensive army. Mardonius, seeking to break the impasse, ordered his cavalry to harass the Greek lines.
The Persian cavalry, led by the flamboyant Masistius, attacked the Greek lines, particularly pressing the Megarians. The Athenians, including a unit of 300 hoplites and archers, reinforced the Megarians. An Athenian arrow struck Masistius's horse, unseating him. The Greeks then killed Masistius, leading to a fierce battle over his body. The Greeks, ultimately successful, paraded Masistius's corpse, boosting their morale. This victory prompted Pausanias to move the Greek army to a more vulnerable position closer to the Asopus River, granting them access to the Gargaphia Spring but also more open ground for Persian cavalry.
A dispute arose over the Athenian position on the left flank, with the Tegeans claiming it, but the Athenians, citing their heroism at Marathon, retained their place. After a week-long standoff, Mardonius's cavalry attacked a Greek supply column. This setback, along with foul conditions in the Greek camp, prompted Pausanias to order a redeployment to a more defensible position. However, this order was met with insubordination from Amompharetus, a Spartan divisional commander, who stubbornly refused to retreat. This almost led to a comical, if dangerous, stalemate until Pausanias moved the rest of the right wing, essentially calling Amompharetus's bluff, forcing him to grudgingly follow.
Mardonius, seeing the Greek withdrawal, mistakenly believed it was a full retreat and ordered a general attack, disregarding the unfavorable omens. The Persian foot soldiers, eager for battle, advanced in a disorganized manner. While the Spartans and Tegeans held their ground against the main Persian forces, the Athenians engaged medized Greeks, including fierce Theban resistance. Pausanias, after a desperate prayer to Hera, saw favorable omens, and the Spartans, along with the Tegeans, charged the Persian shield wall. Despite fighting fiercely, the Persians broke, and Mardonius, conspicuous on his white steed, was killed by Aeimnestus of Sparta. The Persian withdrawal, though initially orderly, was screened by cavalry, which inflicted casualties on the pursuing Greek center.
Thousands of Persians retreated to their fortified camp, which the Spartans, unfamiliar with siege warfare, were hesitant to assault. However, the Tegeans and Athenians breached the defenses, leading to a massacre of the trapped Persian survivors. The Greeks honored their fallen and distributed spoils. Thebes faced retribution for its support of the Persians. Simultaneously, the Greek fleet confronted the Persians at Mycale, where a Persian land force under Tigranes was also overcome. These victories at Plataea and Mycale effectively ended the Persian threat to Greece. Growing tensions between Athens and Sparta, however, would soon lead to the Peloponnesian War.