18. Egypt - Fall of the Pharaohs

Around 1200 AD, the Arab scholar Abd Al-Latif Al-Baghdadi, inspired by Aristotle, journeyed through Egypt. He traveled to great cities like Mosul, Jerusalem, Damascus, Aleppo, and eventually reached the Nile. His book, "The Book of Edification and Admonition," recounts his awe of Egypt's wondrous monuments, particularly the pyramids of Giza. He observed the local people climbing, quarrying, and exploring the hidden tunnels of these immense structures, noting the undecipherable ancient inscriptions. He also visited the Sphinx, then buried nose-deep in the sand. Al-Baghdadi was deeply impressed by the advanced engineering, which ensured these constructions survived for millennia, testifying to the ingenuity of their builders.

The annual monsoon floods of the Nile, predictable due to the rising of the star Sirius, dictated the Egyptian year, divided into Akhet (flood), Peret (growing), and Shemu (harvest). This cycle, vital for agriculture, led to the development of Nilometers to measure flood levels. Pre-dynastic Egypt was divided culturally and politically: Upper Egypt, with connections to Nubia, worshipped Nekhbet; Lower Egypt, with Mediterranean influences, revered Wadjet. Around 3000 BC, King Narmer of Thinis united these two lands. Known as 'Fighting Catfish,' Narmer's palette depicts his conquest. Egyptian culture initially borrowed from Mesopotamia but soon developed its unique artistic and writing system: hieroglyphs. The ruler, known as 'pharaoh' (from 'per aa' - great house), was considered the living embodiment of Horus and son of Ra. Herodotus details Egyptian embalming practices, a costly ritual for the wealthy to prepare for the afterlife.

King Narmer established a new capital at Memphis, 'the city of white walls,' strategically located at the Nile's delta. Early pharaohs were buried in ancestral grounds at Abydos until King Hotep-sekh-emwy initiated a new burial site near Memphis, Saqqara. This raised plateau, marking the transition from green river lands to desert, became a necropolis. Early tombs were mastabas, rectangular mud-brick structures. However, under Pharaoh Djoser, his visionary architect Imhotep revolutionized tomb construction. Imhotep, a polymath known for his diverse talents, designed the stepped pyramid of Djoser, the world's first large-scale stone construction. Rising 62 meters, it was the tallest building of its time, setting a new standard for Egyptian architecture.

Pyramid construction demanded immense resources and speed, often abandoned if a pharaoh died prematurely. King Sekhemkhet's and King Khaba's pyramids remained unfinished due to their short reigns. These monuments were built by up to 100,000 laborers, not slaves, but professional artisans and seasonal peasant farmers working in exchange for rations and beer. Their team names, like 'The Friends of Khufu,' suggest pride and camaraderie. The vast administrative effort for monument construction restructured the Egyptian government, creating specialized roles appointed by merit. This era, as Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson noted, was when 'the pyramids were building Egypt'.

Sneferu, whose name means 'Horus, Lord of Ma'at, has perfected me,' reigned for 48 prosperous years. He sought to build a geometrically perfect, smooth-sided pyramid. His first attempt at the Meidum pyramid, initially a stepped pyramid encased in limestone, spectacularly collapsed. Undeterred, he began a second pyramid at Dahshur. This attempt, with its steep 53-degree slope, suffered structural issues due to soft ground and was hastily completed at a reduced 43-degree angle, earning it the name 'bent pyramid.' Learning from these failures, Sneferu's third attempt, the Red Pyramid, was built with a consistent 43-degree incline, achieving the iconic smooth-sided pyramid shape. Standing 105 meters high, it became the world's tallest building and set the model for future pyramids. Sneferu was buried here, paving the way for his son, Khufu.

Khufu, inspired by his father Sneferu, sought to build the largest pyramid ever. His Great Pyramid at Giza, built with 2.3 million stone blocks weighing 6 million tonnes, measured 147 meters high and was oriented precisely to true north. Local limestone formed the interior, while fine Tura limestone from across the Nile encased the exterior. Overseer Merer's papyrus logs detail stone transportation via canals. Completed around 2560 BC, the Great Pyramid remained the world's tallest structure for nearly 4,000 years. Khufu's son, Khafre, built his pyramid beside his father's, slightly shorter but appearing taller due to its elevated location. Khafre's pyramid is the only one at Giza to retain some of its original smooth, white casing stones, offering a glimpse of their ancient splendor. These pyramids were likely topped with pyramidions of diorite or granite, possibly encased in shining metal.

Within a century of Djoser's pyramid, Egypt's largest pyramids were built. Enthusiasm for colossal pyramids waned with Menkaure, Khufu's grandson, who built a significantly smaller pyramid. This shift marked a decline in ambition, partly due to changing religious attitudes and concerns about tomb-robbers. Later pharaohs built smaller, less durable pyramids, often with mud-brick cores, leading to their eventual decay. The practice gradually died out, replaced by secret tombs to thwart grave robbers, as evidenced by architect Ineni's tomb inscription. Tomb inspections revealed widespread desecration, prompting warnings against despoiling existing monuments. Later pharaohs chose the Valley of the Kings near Thebes for burial, a natural pyramid-like formation that offered prestige without the massive labor investment.

By the Sixth Dynasty, royal monument construction declined due to increasing decentralization and weakening royal power. Pharaoh Pepi II, who ascended the throne at age six and ruled for over sixty years, exemplified this decline. During his long reign, regional administrators called nomarchs gained increasing power, making their positions hereditary and accumulating wealth. Harkhuf's tomb inscription, detailing his expeditions into Central Africa, highlights Pepi II's youthful enthusiasm, especially for exotic discoveries like a dwarf. However, Pepi II's detached rule exacerbated the decentralization. The 4.2 kiloyear event, a record drought affecting the Eastern Mediterranean, severely reduced Nile floods around 2200 BC, leading to agricultural collapse and widespread famine. The extended reign of Pepi II, coupled with his numerous heirs, led to a severe succession crisis upon his death around 2175 BC, plunging Egypt into chaos.

The ensuing two decades saw 17 pharaohs come and go, highlighting immense chaos. King Ibi's small, poorly constructed pyramid signaled the empire's diminished state. Nomarchs declared independence, boasting elaborate titles and fighting amongst themselves, while tomb inscriptions omitted pharaohs' names. Famine swept Upper Egypt, with accounts like Ankhtifi's describing desperation, including cannibalism. The land fractured, reminiscent of pre-Narmer times, as refugees sought grain. The Lament of Ipuwer vividly describes economic collapse, widespread theft, and social unrest, with skilled artisans forced into farming and trade ceasing. This period of turmoil bred a prophecy of a reunifying king, fulfilled by Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II of Thebes.

The Papyrus Lansing offers insight into Middle Kingdom daily life, highlighting various professions and the scribe's esteemed role. Most Egyptians were peasant farmers, giving their produce to the crown or temples. Women baked bread made from emmer wheat, and the diet was diverse, including vegetables, pulses, meats (beef, lamb, pork, goat, poultry), and even hedgehogs. Beer was a staple, leading to large breweries often run by women, and celebrated in festivals like the 'Festival of Drunkenness.' Granaries stored grain, vulnerable to mice and rats. Domestic cats, particularly the African wild cat, became crucial allies in pest control, developing a calmer temperament and communicative vocalizations. Egyptian adoration for cats evolved into religious reverence, with goddesses like Bastet associated with femininity and fertility. Cats were highly protected; killing one, even by accident, was punishable by death, reflecting their sacred status.

The Middle Kingdom saw pharaohs undertaking large-scale construction, like irrigation projects in Faiyum and defensive walls in the Nile Delta to protect against 'Asiatics.' Egypt expanded its influence north into Palestine and south into Nubia, establishing powerful fortresses like Buhen. Senusret III brutally campaigned against the Nubians, extending Egypt's southern border to the second cataract. His triumphant inscription at Semna solidified this new boundary. The Egyptians maintained paranoid surveillance over the colonized Nubians, as evidenced by papyrus dispatches detailing minuscule movements. Senusret's realistic statues, with enlarged ears, symbolize a king burdened by anxiety. After Senusret, Egypt faced another succession crisis. Sobekneferu, the first female pharaoh to hold full royal title, ruled briefly and without an heir, leading to the Second Intermediate Period and renewed chaos.

The Second Intermediate Period plunged Egypt into 150 years of turmoil, with at least fifty rulers. The kingdom split, and local governors gained autonomy. Pyramid construction ceased, replaced by simple shaft tombs. Nubia, now a rising power, rebelled, forcing Egypt to abandon its southern forts, which became bases for Nubian raids. Trade suffered as borders convulsed. During this time, the eruption of the Thera volcano (Santorini), 700 km from Egypt, unleashed a catastrophic event, far more powerful than Krakatoa. Its plumed ash, tsunamis, and volcanic winter devastated coastal regions and caused widespread crop failures, potentially wiping out the Minoan civilization. The Tempest Stelae may record this disaster, intensifying famine and social unrest, paving the way for the Hyksos.

The Hyksos, 'rulers of foreign lands,' likely from Syria, arrived in Egypt, bringing revolutionary chariot technology. These light, fast, two-wheeled chariots pulled by horses, unlike Egypt's war carts, were mobile battle platforms for archers. Whether their arrival was a violent invasion or peaceful migration, the Hyksos established a kingdom in the Nile Delta with its capital at Avaris, even capturing Memphis, Egypt's ancient capital. Manetho recorded their brutal seizure, burning cities and temples. The pyramids now fell into foreign hands, forcing Egyptian kings back to Thebes. King Kamose, enraged by his father's battlefield death, vowed to expel the Hyksos and unite Egypt. Despite council fears, Kamose secured the southern fortress of Buhen, then launched a surprise attack on Avaris, inflicting heavy losses and devastating Hyksos settlements. An intercepted message revealed a Hyksos appeal to Nubia, sealing their fate. Kamose's successor, Ahmose, completed the expulsion, recapturing Memphis and the Giza pyramids, marking the end of the Hyksos era and the beginning of the New Kingdom.

The New Kingdom marked Egypt's greatest territorial extent and monument construction. Thebes remained the capital, and Egypt adopted horse-drawn chariots. Hatshepsut, a powerful female pharaoh, was a prolific builder, creating the Karnak temple complex and the 'Holy of Holies,' and her voyage to Punt brought unique goods. The reign of Amunhotep IV transformed Egyptian religion. Initially named after Amun-Ra, the chief god, he championed the worship of Aten, the sun disk, believing it his true father. Akhenaten (formerly Amunhotep IV) banned other gods, shutting down temples and chiseling Amun's name from monuments. He built a new capital, Akhetaten, in the desert, proclaiming it the Aten's preferred monument. A grand ceremony in 1342 BC showcased his successful conversion, attracting foreign dignitaries. However, a deadly plague, likely brought by these foreign contacts, ravaged Egypt, possibly killing many in Akhenaten's family. This disaster was perceived as divine judgment against his radical religious reforms.

Following Akhenaten's death in 1335 BC, his successors struggled to maintain the Aten cult in the plague-ravaged Akhetaten. His son, the eight-year-old Tutankh-Aten, ascended the throne. In a pivotal move, he reverted to traditional worship, changing his name to Tutankhamun, symbolizing the triumphant return of Amun. He ended the Aten cult, restored Amun's supremacy, and re-established the privileges of the priesthood. Temples to Aten were dismantled. Though his nine-year reign was brief, Tutankhamun's fame stems from a historical accident: his tomb in the Valley of the Kings, concealed by a flash flood, remained untouched by robbers for 3,300 years. Discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter, its treasures, including the golden burial mask, captivated the world, overshadowing more politically significant pharaohs and making him the most famous of all.

Fifty years after Tutankhamun, Ramesses II, known as Ramesses the Great, became Egypt's greatest pharaoh, ruling for 66 years from 1279 BC. He battled Mediterranean pirates and expanded Egypt's northern borders into Syria, confronting the powerful Hittite Empire. In his fourth regnal year, Ramesses marched to capture Kadesh, a strategic city. His scouts were deceived by Shasu tribesmen into believing the Hittites were retreating, leading Ramesses to rush ahead with only one division. At Kadesh, 2,500 Hittite chariots ambushed his forces, scattering his Ra division. Surrounded, Ramesses rallied his men in a desperate charge. Despite his self-aggrandizing account, fresh Egyptian reinforcements and newly arrived charioteers turned the tide. The battle ended in a stalemate, with both sides claiming victory. Fifteen years later, the world's first written peace treaty was signed between Ramesses and the Hittite king Hattusili III, ensuring friendly relations. Ramesses devoted his later years to prolific construction, ensuring his name adorned countless monuments, and built a new capital, Per-Ramesses.

Ramesses II died at nearly ninety, his long reign creating a succession crisis. His 13th son, Merneptah, took the throne at seventy but faced a devastating new enemy: the Sea Peoples, groups from across the Mediterranean, reinforced by Libyans. Merneptah defeated this invasion, impaled captured soldiers as a warning, but the region remained unstable. Following Merneptah's death, civil strife and a series of severe droughts destabilized Egypt. This period, known as the Late Bronze Age Collapse, saw widespread crop failures and the collapse of other major civilizations like the Mycenaeans and Hittites. Egyptian texts, like the 'Lament to Amun,' reflect the era's despair over famines and changing seasons. Trade routes broke down, and Egypt's economy declined steeply, ushering in an age of weakened centralized power and growing corruption. The first recorded workers' strike, by artisans building Ramesses III's tomb, highlighted the dire food shortages and weakened pharaonic authority.

Egypt's history spans over three millennia, marked by 31 dynasties. Historians categorize this into the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, separated by intermediate periods of central power decline. The Nile River, originating from Lake Victoria and flowing 6,800 km, was the lifeblood of Egypt, sustaining all life in the arid climate. Early human presence in Egypt dates back 600,000 years, with modern Homo sapiens arriving 100,000 years ago during humid periods when the Sahara bloomed. The cycle of humid and arid periods drove people to the fertile Nile banks, leading to scattered settlements that coalesced into cities and kingdoms. The ancient Egyptians divided their world into "Kemet" (the black land of the Nile floodplain) and "Deshret" (the red desert), ruled by Horus and Set, respectively. The Nile's cataracts at Aswan marked Egypt's southern border, controlling trade and serving as a natural defense. The river's unique flow, south-to-north, with prevailing winds in the opposite direction, facilitated easy travel and trade.

Mentuhotep II, king of Thebes, reunified Egypt after a century of chaos. Thebes, once a backwater, became the capital of Upper Egypt, challenging the northern power of Henen-Nesut (Heracleopolis). A rebellion in Thinis escalated into a bitter war, culminating in the sacking of Abydos by the northerners, a deed later regretted by a king of Henen-Nesut in the "Instruction to Merikare." Mentuhotep's brutal reprisal and subsequent conquest of the north reunited Egypt, ushering in the Middle Kingdom. Despite a less impressive archaeological record, this period saw a flourishing of Egyptian literature, including "The Tale of Sinuhe," "Tales of Wonder," and "The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor." The latter, a tale of an ordinary man in a fantastical situation, is considered one of the earliest pieces of true literature, written around 1900 BC.

Ramesses III, despite his victorious battle against the Sea Peoples, faced a courtly conspiracy known as the 'harem conspiracy.' Queen Tiye, a secondary wife, plotted to assassinate Ramesses and install her son Pentawer on the throne. The plot, involving high-ranking officials and supernatural magical attempts, culminated in the assassination of Ramesses III in 1156 BC during the Beautiful Festival of the Valley. Ramesses died from a severe throat wound, but his son crushed the coup, executing the plotters. Despite his effective rule, Egypt's stability was severely undermined. The subsequent eight pharaohs bore the name Ramesses but were mostly ineffectual. This period saw continued droughts, famine, and civil unrest. The High Priests of Amun in Thebes gained immense power and wealth, controlling vast temple lands and gold. Their positions became hereditary, making them de facto rulers of Upper Egypt. With the death of Ramesses XI, the New Kingdom fractured, and Egypt lost its former power, never to fully recover.

For four centuries, Egypt's influence steadily declined. The 'Tale of Wenamun' illustrates the diminished prestige of the pharaoh internationally. The 21st dynasty saw Libyan invaders ruling the Nile Delta, initially adopting Egyptian customs but later reverting to their own. Meanwhile, the Nubian kingdom of Kush in the south, influenced by Egyptian religion and architecture, grew powerful. Egyptian forts became Kushite strongholds, and Kushite kings embraced Egyptian culture, even building pyramids. King Kashta of Kush, seizing the opportunity of Egypt's fractured state, gained influence over the High Priests of Thebes, leading to his daughter being appointed God's Wife of Amun, securing Upper Egypt for Kush. Kashta's son, Piye, conquered Lower Egypt around 720 BC, uniting Egypt under the Nubian 25th dynasty. These Nubian pharaohs enthusiastically adopted Egyptian language, names, and worship, even initiating a new era of pyramid building.

Under Nubian pharaoh Taharqa, Egypt enjoyed a period of stability and prosperity thanks to abundant Nile floods. Taharqa, proud of his Nubian heritage, supported long-distance running for his soldiers and extensively restored religious sites. However, this resurgence was short-lived. In 674 BC, the mighty Assyrian Empire, led by King Esarhaddon, invaded Egypt. Taharqa initially repelled them, a feat recorded by Herodotus as a mythical mouse plague. However, three years later, Esarhaddon returned with a larger army, capturing Memphis and scattering Taharqa south. Esarhaddon's triumphant inscription boasts of his victory and the plundering of Egypt. When Taharqa reappeared with reinforcements, Esarhaddon set out to crush the rebellion but died en route. His successor, Ashurbanipal, relentlessly campaigned in Egypt, eventually overwhelming the weakened Egyptian forces. In 663 BC, Ashurbanipal sacked Thebes, plundering its vast wealth. This symbolic act marked the end of indigenous Egyptian power, though Assyria's hold was fleeting. Egypt would subsequently be conquered by Persia, then Alexander the Great, and finally ruled by the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty.

The Ptolemaic dynasty, ruling Egypt for three centuries, maintained Greek as their language. Cleopatra, the last independent ruler, was an exception, learning Egyptian and other languages. Her death in 30 BC, likely by poison, marked the end of independent Egyptian power. At her time, the Great Pyramid was already 2,500 years old. With increasing foreign influence, Egyptian culture transformed. The knowledge of hieroglyphics was gradually lost due to the prominence of the Greek alphabet, as recorded by a medieval Arab visitor. The last known hieroglyphic inscription was made in 394 AD at the Temple of Philae, a last bastion of ancient gods' worship outside Roman jurisdiction. This temple, eventually closed and converted into a Christian church by Emperor Justinian in the 530s, signaled the true end of Ancient Egypt.

In 1818, inspired by the arrival of a colossal statue fragment of Ramesses II at the British Museum, Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote his famous sonnet, "Ozymandias." The poem, a reflection on the fleeting nature of power and the inevitability of decay, captures the awe and melancholy of encountering ruined civilizations. Shelley, unaware of ancient Egyptian literature, inadvertently echoed sentiments from the Middle Kingdom's "Harper's Song," a 4,200-year-old funerary poem. Both works convey a profound sense of the passage of time and the transient nature of human endeavors. As the sun sets on the crumbling palaces and emptied tombs of Egypt, its ancient language forgotten and cities turned to dust, these artistic reflections allow us to connect with the deep emotions of those who witnessed the grandeur and ultimate decline of one of history's greatest empires.