Summary
Highlights
Facing the prospect of war with Poland, Hitler sought to avoid a two-front war. In August 1939, Stalin, distrusting the Western powers, negotiated a non-aggression pact with Germany. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939) included secret protocols dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. This pact enabled Germany to invade Western Poland on September 1, 1939, without Soviet interference, marking the beginning of World War II. The USSR then invaded Eastern Poland on September 17, expanding its influence in other Baltic states and Finland. The video concludes by highlighting how the failures of Versailles, the League of Nations, and appeasement led to the devastating global conflict.
The video introduces the GCSE History course, 'Conflict and Tension 1918-1939,' which examines the transition from the end of World War I to the start of World War II, focusing primarily on Europe and key case studies. It promises to cover all necessary content for achieving top grades.
World War I ended with Germany signing an Armistice in November 1918. The Paris Peace Conference in January 1919 brought together over 30 countries to establish peace terms, with the 'Big Three' (France's Clemenceau, USA's Wilson, and Britain's Lloyd George) making key compromises to create treaties like the Treaty of Versailles.
France, led by Clemenceau, sought harsh punishment for Germany, including maximum reparations and territorial concessions, due to the extensive damage inflicted on French land. Britain, under Lloyd George, was more cautious, aiming for German economic stability to prevent the spread of communism and facilitate international trade, while also securing naval supremacy and colonies. The USA's Woodrow Wilson, the most idealistic, desired a fair peace to prevent future revenge, proposing his Fourteen Points including self-determination and the League of Nations, though facing domestic isolationist sentiment.
The Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, imposed significant military, economic, national, and territorial terms on Germany. Militarily, the Rhineland was demilitarized, the army limited to 100,000 men without conscription, and restrictions were placed on armament. Economically, reparations were set at 6.6 billion pounds, and the Saar region was controlled by the League of Nations. Germany lost 10% of its land, 1/8 of its population, and 48% of its iron industry. The 'War Guilt Clause' (Article 231) forced Germany to accept responsibility for the war. Territorially, German colonies became mandates, and Germany was split by the Polish Corridor. Reactions were mixed: Clemenceau and the French public felt it was too lenient, Lloyd George was pleased with British gains but concerned about harsh reparations, and Wilson disliked the harshness and the ignorance of his 14 points, leading to the U.S. not joining the League of Nations.
The Allies also created treaties for Germany's allies. The Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919) dealt with Austria, leading to land losses for new countries and economic collapse. The Treaty of Neuilly (1919) imposed territorial and military restrictions on Bulgaria. The Treaty of Trianon (1920) severely impacted Hungary, leading to massive territorial losses and economic interdependence issues. The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) was extremely harsh on the Ottoman Empire, but Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's nationalist government rejected it, leading to the Turkish War of Independence and the renegotiated Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which was much milder and recognized the new Republic of Turkey. The revision of the Turkish treaty demonstrated that international agreements could be challenged, influencing figures like Hitler.
In March 1936, Hitler gambled by remilitarizing the Rhineland, a demilitarized zone under Versailles. He timed this when the League was preoccupied with Abyssinia and used the Franco-Soviet Pact as an excuse. German troops, some poorly equipped, were met with cheers from the local population rather than French resistance. Britain and France, unprepared for military action and with internal political divisions, did not intervene. This act solidified Hitler's power, weakened Allied resolve, accelerated rearmament, and strategically threatened France's Maginot Line.
Key interwar agreements included the Washington Arms Conference (1921-22), promoting naval disarmament but lacking the League's involvement. The Treaty of Rapallo (1922) was a Soviet-German agreement that renounced territorial claims and enabled secret military cooperation, bypassing Versailles restrictions and highlighting the League's weakness. The Dawes Plan (1924) helped revive Germany economically with U.S. loans, although it created reliance on such loans. The Locarno Treaties (1925) improved diplomatic relations, with Germany accepting its western borders and joining the League, creating a 'spirit of Locarno,' but it didn't secure Germany's eastern borders. The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) saw 62 nations renounce war, but it was unenforceable. The Young Plan (1929) reduced German reparations but was ultimately doomed by the 1929 Wall Street Crash.
The League of Nations, established in January 1920, aimed for international cooperation, disarmament, preventing war, and settling disputes. It comprised a Council, Assembly, Secretariat, Permanent Court of International Justice, and other commissions. Its strengths included being part of post-war treaties and having 42 initial members with powerful economies. However, its core weaknesses were the absence of the USA, USSR (until 1934), and Germany (until 1926), lack of its own army, an over-reliance on members' goodwill, and inefficient organization (unanimous votes, veto power for permanent council members). The Conference of Ambassadors often undermined the League's authority.
The League's special commissions achieved some notable successes. The Slavery Commission organized raids, freeing 200,000 people and influencing nations to emancipate slaves. The Economic and Financial Committee helped Austria and Hungary with economic recovery. The Refugee Commission helped repatriate 427,000 POWs and settle 1.5 million Russian refugees. The Communications and Transport Organization improved shipping lanes and introduced international highway codes. The Health Committee combatted diseases like malaria and typhus and set up research institutes. The International Labor Organization recommended banning white lead in paint and set minimum wages, though it faced opposition on child labor and workers' rights.
The League had mixed success in resolving disputes. The Teschen dispute (1919) between Poland and Czechoslovakia was peacefully resolved through territorial division. However, the Vilna dispute (1920), where Poland occupied the Lithuanian capital, exposed the League's inability to enforce decisions without an army. The Upper Silesia dispute (1921) between Germany and Poland resulted in a compromised yet unsatisfactory partition. The Aaland Islands dispute (1921) between Sweden and Finland was a League success, with the islands going to Finland under specific conditions. The Corfu incident (1923) saw Italy bombard Greece; the League condemned Italy, but the Conference of Ambassadors overturned the decision, making Greece pay compensation. The Incident (1925) led to Greece attacking Bulgaria, but the League's intervention made Greece withdraw and pay a fine, though many saw this as a double standard compared to Italy.
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 triggered the Great Depression, causing global economic decline. In the USA, banks failed, unemployment soared, and protectionist policies worsened the situation. Britain experienced high unemployment and reduced exports, leading to austerity measures. France saw industrial decline and political instability, with extremist parties gaining popularity. Italy's banks crashed, leading to mass nationalization and the highest state ownership of an economy outside the USSR. Japan suffered from deflationary policies, causing agricultural and textile prices to plummet, leading to severe poverty and social issues.
Japan's economic downturn and rising nationalism led to aggressive expansion. In September 1931, Japan staged the Mukden Incident as an excuse to invade Manchuria. Despite China's appeal to the League, the League's response was slow and ineffective. A resolution ordering Japanese troops to leave was ignored. The Lytton Report (1932) condemned Japan's actions, but the League could not enforce sanctions due to economic frailty of member states. Japan simply walked out of the League, continuing its conquest of Chinese territories. This crisis exposed the League's powerlessness against a determined aggressor.
Benito Mussolini, aiming to restore the Roman Empire, sought to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia). He believed Britain and France would not intervene due to their need for an alliance against Hitler (Stresa Front) and witnessed the League's weak response to Japan. After a border clash in December 1934, Italy invaded Abyssinia in October 1935, using chemical weapons and committing atrocities. The League reluctantly condemned Italy and imposed sanctions, but crucially omitted oil and coal, Italy's main imports. The Hoare-Laval Pact, a secret deal to appease Italy, was leaked, further discrediting the League. This crisis proved the League's inability to protect small nations and effectively ended its credibility.
Adolf Hitler's primary aims included creating a 'Gross Deutschland' (Greater Germany), overturning the Treaty of Versailles, obtaining 'Lebensraum' (living space) in the East, destroying communism, and rearming Germany. From October 1933, Germany rapidly rearmed, expanding its army and air force, openly defying Versailles. The U.S. and Allied companies inadvertently assisted this rearmament. Britain and France, unwilling to risk war and themselves rearming, offered little challenge. The Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935 further undermined Versailles.
The Dolfuss Affair (1934) marked a rare setback for Hitler. Austrian Chancellor Dolfuss, opposing unification, was assassinated by Austrian Nazis in an attempted coup. Mussolini, wanting Austria as a buffer state, mobilized troops, forcing Hitler to back down. However, the Saar plebiscite (1935), held according to Versailles, saw 90% of the population vote to rejoin Germany. This democratic outcome, fueled by German-speaking support and Hitler's propaganda, reinforced his expansionist ambitions and provided Germany with crucial coal resources.
Germany sought stronger alliances, learning from the weakness of its WWI partners. Initially, Mussolini was wary of Hitler, but their shared support for Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936) fostered a bond. Italy and Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact (1937) and later the Pact of Steel (1939). Japan also joined the Anti-Comintern Pact (1936). Hitler resumed his efforts for Anschluss (unification) with Austria. In 1938, he pressured Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg, eventually forcing his resignation and orchestrating an invasion. A referendum under occupation resulted in a 99.7% vote for Anschluss in April 1938, demonstrating Hitler's escalating aggression.
In early 1938, Hitler turned his attention to Czechoslovakia, using complaints about the mistreatment of Germans in the Sudetenland as a pretext for invasion. British Prime Minister Chamberlain and French Premier Daladier pursued a policy of appeasement, despite France's defensive alliance with Czechoslovakia and the latter's modern army. At the Munich Conference in September 1938, Britain, France, Italy, and Germany agreed to cede the Sudetenland to Germany. Chamberlain declared 'peace in our time,' but Czechoslovakia was betrayed, losing strategic defenses and industries. In March 1939, Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia without justification. Appeasement had failed, empowering Hitler and increasing Germany's military and industrial capacity.