Summary
Highlights
Women played a crucial role in the wartime economy, making up one-third of the civilian labor force by 1944. Married women in their 30s became a significant part of this workforce. However, this was largely seen as temporary, and most women, especially in industrial jobs, were laid off after the war, often returning to lower-paying work.
World War II brought significant changes to the United States, influencing American self-perception and global image. These changes, partly building on the New Deal and partly direct results of the war, left the country profoundly different by its end.
The war dramatically strengthened the federal government, with agencies like the War Production Board taking unprecedented economic control through rationing, production quotas, and wage/price fixing. This intervention, resembling a 'New Deal on steroids,' helped drastically reduce unemployment from 14% in 1940 to 2% in 1943. American factories boosted production significantly, leading to a rise in GNP from $91 billion to $214 billion. This was largely funded by federal spending and increased taxes, with the number of federal income taxpayers rising from 4 million to 40 million. Big businesses grew due to government contracts, and defense spending spurred industrial growth, particularly in the West Coast. Union membership also expanded.
FDR's concept of 'Four Freedoms' (speech, worship, want, fear) became central to the war's ideological framing. He proposed an Economic Bill of Rights for full employment and essential services, but this was blocked by Southern Democrats. Congress did pass the GI Bill of Rights, which greatly assisted returning soldiers with college enrollment and housing, contributing to a post-war housing boom.
Beyond FDR's vision, big business promoted 'free enterprise' as a fifth freedom, linking war efforts to consumerism. Time Magazine publisher Henry Luce advocated for an 'American Century' defined by U.S. industrial products and ideas of freedom. Simultaneously, the fight against Nazism led to a redefinition of Americanism as diverse, tolerant, and equal for all, challenging the scientific basis of racism. However, anti-Semitism persisted, only 21,000 Jewish people were allowed into the U.S. during the Holocaust, and racial tensions led to riots (e.g., Detroit, Zoot Suit). The Bracero program increased Mexican immigration, and many Mexican Americans and American Indians served in the armed forces. Japanese Americans faced severe discrimination, with over 110,000, including American citizens, forcibly interned under Executive Order 9066.
World War II brought significant changes for African Americans. Over a million served in segregated regiments, and continued the Great Migration to northern and western cities for jobs, though this sometimes led to racial violence. The war saw the start of the Civil Rights Movement. A. Philip Randolph's threat of a march on Washington led to Executive Order 8802, banning discrimination in defense hiring and establishing the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC), boosting black employment in manufacturing. African Americans pursued a 'double-V campaign': victory over Axis powers abroad and over racism at home, making black equality a cornerstone of American liberalism. While military integration was not complete during the war, these changes set the stage for future civil rights advancements.
The U.S. emerged from the war as a global leader. Conferences like Bretton Woods established America's economic dominance, with the dollar becoming the primary international currency, and created the World Bank and IMF. The U.S. also played a key role in founding the United Nations, signaling its commitment to active international involvement. World War II ended the Great Depression, solidified New Deal liberalism, opened opportunities for diverse groups, and redefined freedom both domestically and abroad. It affirmed the 'American Creed'—a belief in equality, justice, equal opportunity, and freedom—though realizing this ideal remains an ongoing struggle.