The Age of REFORM in the United States [APUSH Review]

The period between 1800 and 1848 witnessed a significant rise in social reform movements, heavily influenced by the Market Revolution and the Second Great Awakening. These movements aimed to modify individual behavior and societal structures, often through voluntary organizations operating independently of government intervention. This section introduces the various reform efforts that took place during this transformative era in American history.

The temperance movement sought to reduce or eliminate alcohol production and consumption, which reformers believed was a primary cause of societal decline. Founded in 1826, the American Temperance Society primarily targeted working-class men, though drunkenness was a genuine problem impacting families and industrial productivity. This middle-class-led movement, spurred by the Second Great Awakening, grew rapidly and led to prohibition policies in a dozen states by the 1850s. These policies faced strong opposition, particularly from Irish and German immigrants, culminating in events like the Portland Rum Riot of 1855, which led to the repeal of Maine's prohibition law.

Prior to this period, individuals with mental health conditions were often neglected, criminalized, or socially isolated. Dorothea Dix became a pivotal figure in reforming this injustice, advocating for humane treatment and professional care for the mentally ill. Her impassioned efforts led many state legislatures to fund the construction or refurbishment of mental hospitals, shifting the approach from punishment to therapeutic care.

Abolitionism, the movement to end slavery, drew significant inspiration from the anti-slavery rhetoric of the Second Great Awakening. Early abolitionist efforts were largely led by free black Americans, such as David Walker, who called for immediate emancipation, even by force. Interracial groups like the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society also emerged. White abolitionists, including William Lloyd Garrison, through his newspaper 'The Liberator,' advocated for immediate emancipation without compensation, relying on 'moral suasion.' Southern states responded with measures like the Congressional gag rule and tightened restrictions on enslaved populations, reflecting a growing fear of slave rebellions. Frederick Douglass, an escaped slave, became a powerful voice for abolition, publishing his memoir and founding 'The North Star' newspaper. By 1820, northern states had abolished or phased out slavery, leading to larger free black communities. Conversely, southern states increased control over enslaved people, making it illegal to free them, teach them to read, or allow them to marry.

Women played a crucial role in the abolitionist movement, but their experiences within a male-dominated enterprise led many to realize the necessity of equal rights for themselves. This culminated in the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, organized by Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. The convention produced the Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions, which, modeled after the Declaration of Independence, asserted that 'all men and women are created equal' and listed grievances against societal discrimination. While full suffrage would take another 70 years, this marked a foundational moment for the women's rights movement, initially focused on white women's rights.

Religious reform manifested in two main ways: utopian societies and new religious movements. Utopian societies sought to create ideal communities separate from wider culture. Examples include the Brook Farm Community (1841-1847), an experiment in socialist living that emphasized equality and education but failed financially. The more successful Oneida Community (founded 1848 by John Humphrey Noyes) believed in Christian perfectionism and practiced 'complex marriage' where all consenting adults could relate, though Noyes maintained strict control over procreation akin to eugenics, eventually transitioning into a silverware manufacturing company. Simultaneously, entirely new religious movements emerged, such as Mormonism. Founded by Joseph Smith in the 'burned-over district' of New York, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints claimed Christ had visited North America. Facing persecution, especially due to their practice of polygamy, Mormons were forced to migrate westward under Brigham Young to the Utah territory, establishing a theocracy.