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Goguryeo was founded in 37 BC by Jumong, a migrant from Buyeo, who allied with local forces in the Jolbon region of the Amnok River basin. It was a confederated kingdom of five tribes, similar to Buyeo, with each tribe governing its own people and territory. The Go clan of the Gyerubu tribe eventually monopolized the kingship, establishing a foundation for a centralized state. Early Goguryeo relied on a predatory economy due to limited farmland and strictly enforced laws to maintain social order.

Goguryeo expanded its territory and influence under kings like King Taejo, who conquered Okjeo, and King Gogukcheon, who strengthened royal power. King Sosurim revitalized the nation by adopting Buddhism, establishing Taehak (a national academy), and codifying laws. King Gwanggaeto the Great significantly expanded Goguryeo's territory, establishing a vast empire across Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula. King Jangsu continued this expansion, moving the capital to Pyeongyang and conquering Baekje's capital. Goguryeo developed distinctive cultural achievements, including monumental tombs with murals, intricate architecture, and advanced Buddhist statues, actively exchanging culture with neighboring states like China and Japan.

In the late 6th century, Goguryeo faced pressure from the unified Sui Dynasty of China. Goguryeo preemptively attacked Sui, leading to several invasions by Sui, which ultimately failed, most notably the Battle of Salsu led by Eulji Mundeok. After Sui's collapse, the Tang Dynasty also launched invasions, but Goguryeo successfully defended against them, particularly at the Battle of Ansi Fortress led by Yeon Gaesomun.

Despite its strong resistance, Goguryeo eventually fell in 668 AD due to internal divisions after Yeon Gaesomun's death and a concerted attack by the Silla-Tang alliance. Following its collapse, several revival movements emerged, such as those led by Go Yeon-mun and Geom Mojam, who briefly re-established a Goguryeo-like state. However, due to internal conflicts and relentless Tang suppression, these movements ultimately failed.

The Gaya Confederacy, centered around the Nakdong River basin, developed with remarkable iron production and maritime trade. Geumgwan Gaya initially led the confederacy but was weakened by Goguryeo's intervention in the 4th century. Daegaya then rose to prominence, forming the Later Gaya Confederacy. Despite their economic and cultural achievements, the Gaya states remained a confederation and were eventually absorbed by Silla due to internal disunity and pressure from Baekje and Silla.

Baekje was founded in 18 BC by migrants from Buyeo and Goguryeo, along with local forces in the Han River basin. Its advantageous geographical location fostered rapid growth. Under King Goi in the 3rd century, Baekje established a centralized government with a formalized administrative system and a sixteen-rank official hierarchy. The 4th century saw King Geunchogo strengthen royal authority, expand territory to its greatest extent, and engage in active diplomacy and trade with China and Japan.

Baekje adopted Buddhism in the late 4th century under King Chimnyu, integrating it into its state ideology. Baekje's culture was dynamic and developed unique funerary practices, including brick tombs influenced by Southern China, exemplified by King Muryeong's tomb. Notable architectural achievements include the Mireuksa Temple. However, Baekje faced continuous pressure from Goguryeo's southward expansion, losing the Han River basin and being forced to relocate its capital, leading to a period of decline and weakening royal power.

Kings like Dongseong and Muryeong attempted to stabilize the state and strengthen royal power. King Seong moved the capital to Sabi (modern-day Buyeo) and briefly regained the Han River basin from Goguryeo in alliance with Silla but was eventually killed in battle against Silla. Under King Uija, Baekje launched attacks on Silla but ultimately fell in 660 AD to the Silla-Tang alliance. Revival movements, led by figures like Boksin and Geomchhi, emerged but were eventually suppressed.

Silla originated in 57 BC as the small state of Saro, founded by Bak Hyeokgeose in the Gyeongju region. Its geographical isolation initially hindered cultural development and centralization. Early Silla was governed by a confederation of six tribes, with rotating kingship among the Park, Seok, and Kim clans. The title of the ruler evolved, reflecting the gradual strengthening of royal power.

In the 4th century, King Naemul established Kim's lineage as the sole royal heirs and adopted the title of Maripgan. King Jijeung formalized the state name as Silla, adopted the Chinese title of 'Wang' (King), and expanded Silla's territory, including the conquest of Usan-guk. King Beopheung strengthened centralization by promulgating laws, establishing the seventeen-rank official system, and officially recognizing Buddhism as the state religion. King Jinheung further expanded Silla's territory, conquering Daegaya and unifying the Han River basin, solidifying Silla's dominance in the Korean Peninsula. His achievements were commemorated by several monumental steles.

Silla's control of the Han River basin gave it a crucial strategic advantage. Amidst increased pressure from Baekje and Goguryeo, Queen Seondeok and Queen Jindeok sought alliances with China, leading to the formation of the Silla-Tang alliance. This alliance first conquered Baekje in 660 AD and then Goguryeo in 668 AD. Following the defeat of its rivals, Silla fought the Tang Dynasty to expel them from the peninsula, finally achieving unification in 676 AD.

The unified Silla entered a period of prosperity. King Taejong Muyeol and King Munmu consolidated royal power through successful military campaigns and institutional reforms. King Sinmun further strengthened the centralized state by curbing the power of aristocracy through events like the Kim Heumdol Rebellion, establishing the Guseodang and Sipjeong military systems, and implementing the Gukhak educational institution. The political system of United Silla was centered around the Jipsabu, overseen by the Jungsi, and featured a comprehensive administrative division of nine provinces and five smaller capitals. The Hwarangdo trained talented youth, and the rigid Bone Rank System dictated social and political mobility.

United Silla flourished culturally, with advancements in education, evidenced by the Gukhak and the Dokseosampumgwa examination system. Buddhist culture, as seen in the Hwangnyongsa Temple and artifacts, played a significant role. However, by the late 8th century, United Silla entered a period of decline marked by intense power struggles among the 진골 (Jingol) aristocracy, weakening royal authority. This instability led to peasant rebellions, the rise of powerful local magnates (호족, hojok), and the emergence of new ideologies like Feng Shui, ultimately paving the way for the emergence of the Later Three Kingdoms.

In the early 10th century, Gyeon Hwon founded Later Baekje, and Gung Ye founded Later Goguryeo (which later became Taebong), marking the beginning of the Later Three Kingdoms period. Wang Geon, a prominent hojok, overthrew Gung Ye and established Goryeo in 918 AD, claiming to be the successor of Goguryeo. Through strategic alliances and military victories, including the surrender of Silla and the defeat of Later Baekje, Goryeo unified the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 AD.

Following the collapse of Goguryeo, a significant portion of its people were relocated by the Tang Dynasty. Dae Jo-yeong, a former Goguryeo general, led a rebellion and founded Balhae in 698 AD, establishing it as a successor state to Goguryeo. Balhae initially challenged Tang, with King Mu expanding its territory significantly. Balhae proclaimed its independence by using unique era names and actively engaged in diplomatic relations with surrounding powers like the Tang Dynasty, Silla, and Japan, often employing strategic alliances to maintain its position.

Under King Mun, Balhae stabilized its relations with Tang and Silla, adopting Tang's administrative system of three chanceries and six ministries (Samseong Yukbu) while maintaining a unique nomenclature and operational structure. Balhae reached its golden age during the reign of King Seon in the 9th century, when it controlled a vast territory and was referred to as the 'Prosperous Country in the East of the Sea' (Haedong Seongguk) by the Tang Dynasty. Balhae's political system featured a centralized government with a powerful King, supported by an advanced civil service and a strong military comprising both Goguryeo and Malgal people.

Balhae's economy thrived through agriculture, animal husbandry (especially horse breeding), and intensive trade with China, Silla, and Japan, exporting furs, medicinal herbs, and iron. Its society was hierarchical, with Goguryeo's descendants forming the ruling class and Malgal people mostly in the subordinate positions. Balhae developed a rich culture, inheriting elements from Goguryeo and incorporating influences from the Tang Dynasty, evident in its Buddhist art, architecture (like the Sanggyeong capital, modeled after Chang'an), and scholarly traditions. However, Balhae ultimately collapsed in 926 AD due to internal power struggles and a devastating invasion by the Khitan-led Liao Dynasty, with many of its royal family and people seeking refuge in Goryeo.