Summary
Highlights
By the mid-17th century, Islamic culture, including that of the Safavids, began to stagnate, hindering innovation compared to Europe's scientific advancements. Less competent Safavid successors led to neighboring powers, like Russia, expanding into Persian territories. Afghanistan and Pakistan rebelled, and the Ottomans carved out parts of Iran. Nadir Shah, in the mid-18th century, briefly restored an independent Iran and even plundered Delhi to finance reconquests, but his paranoia led to his assassination. A period of anarchy followed, ending with the Qajar Dynasty's founding in 1796. The Qajars struggled against powerful European colonial empires, losing Caucasian territories to Russia in the Russo-Persian Wars. Russia and England increasingly vied for influence over Persia and Central Asia. The discovery of oil in 1908 exacerbated corruption and foreign intervention. By 1907, the Anglo-Russian convention divided Iran into two spheres of influence, showcasing Persia's loss of autonomy. In 1921, with British support, Reza Khan established the Pahlavi dynasty, ruling until 1979. This authoritarian, nationalist, and militaristic government modernized the country but faced resentment over its secularism and westernization. During WWII, Iran's attempt to side with Germany led to Allied invasion, making it a critical supply route to the Soviet Union. Post-war, the Pahlavi Shah initially aimed for a constitutional monarchy, but a US and UK-sponsored coup in 1953 removed the democratically elected prime minister who had nationalized the oil industry, leading to Western control over Iran's oil until 1973. The 1979 Islamic Revolution transformed Iran into an Islamic Republic, severing ties with the West and leading to the Iran-Iraq War. Today, Iran faces Western sanctions but exerts influence regionally and strengthens ties with China and Russia.
Persia, now Iran, is a country with a rich history, being a major power since before the foundation of Rome. It has been a central hub for trade, learning, and cultural exchange, known for its resilience despite numerous invasions. The earliest agricultural villages in the region, such as Choga Golan and Choga Bonut, date back to 7200 BC. The culture of early Persia was deeply intertwined with Mesopotamia, with the city of Susa becoming the capital of Elam, the first defined nation in what would become Persia. Elam was likely a coalition of various peoples, distinct from the Mesopotamian plains, leading to a long-standing conflict between mountain and plain dwellers. Little is known about Elam's daily life due to undeciphered writing, but recent progress might unveil more. Elamite culture featured a unique focus on animals in art, a polytheistic nature-focused religion that was tolerant and influential on later Persian religions like Zoroastrianism, and a remarkable respect for women.
Elam's power faded with the arrival of Iranian (Aryan) nomadic people from the Eurasian steps around 2000 BC, a process that stretched over a millennium. Elamite culture persisted, with its language used administratively. One Iranian group, the Medes, unified the region under Emperor Deioces around 727-675 BC, in response to Assyrian oppression. The Medes destroyed the Assyrian capital Nineveh in 612 BC. However, it was the Persians under Cyrus the Great who would establish the first Persian Empire, the Achaemenid Empire, by rebelling against the Medes in 553 BC. Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 BC and parts of India by 533 BC. He unified the Iranian people, creating a structured empire with satraps and a sophisticated postal system. Known for respecting the cultures and religions of conquered peoples, Cyrus allowed the Israelites to leave Babylon, earning him praise in the Hebrew Bible. He also founded the elite military division known as the Immortals. His son expanded the empire by conquering Phoenicia, Cyprus, Egypt, Nubia, and parts of Syria. Cyrus's tomb and the city of Persepolis remain significant historical sites.
Darius I, another great Persian Emperor after Cyrus, expanded the empire into the Indus Valley but is most remembered for his attempts to conquer Greece. His initial invasion failed at Marathon in 490 BC due to storms and insufficient troops. His son, Xerxes, continued the campaign, burning Athens in 480 BC, but suffered a decisive naval defeat at the Battle of Salamis and retreated, later being assassinated. Despite these setbacks, Persia remained a dominant world power for centuries. The Persian Empire invested heavily in infrastructure to combat its arid climate, including Darius's shushtar hydraulic system and the widely expanded qanats, subterranean canals for irrigation. Other innovations included the yakhchal, an ancient refrigerator, and possibly the invention of the 'cartar' (ancestor of the guitar) and Backgammon. Persian society offered remarkable freedom for women in antiquity, allowing them to own property, businesses, and travel freely, even participating in activities like horse riding and archery. Zoroastrianism, a monotheistic religion founded by Zoroaster, became influential, shaping concepts like free will, angels, and demons, and impacting later Abrahamic religions. The Persian Empire was known for its relative tolerance, respecting local customs and religions while developing an efficient, just, and productive administration.
Cyrus and Darius's empire was eventually conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedon, tutored by Aristotle. Alexander became king at 20, consolidating power ruthlessly by crushing rebellions, such as the destruction of Thebes. He invaded the Persian Empire in 334 BC with 50,000 men, conquering Anatolia, Syria, and the Levant. At the Battle of Issus in 333 BC and Gaugamela in 331 BC, Alexander defeated the larger Persian army, primarily due to Darius III's ineptitude and cowardice. Alexander's military genius and willingness to lead from the front, combined with his strategic use of brutality and generosity, led to his swift conquest. He sacked Persepolis in 330 BC, possibly in revenge for Athens. Alexander pursued Darius's successors across Central Asia and attempted to invade India, but his exhausted troops forced him to turn back. He tried to integrate Greek and Persian cultures and establish legitimacy as a Persian emperor, but faced tensions with his Greek troops. Alexander died suddenly in 323 BC, possibly from fever, leading to speculation about his death. His empire fragmented into four Hellenistic kingdoms, including the Seleucid Empire in Persia, which maintained Greek influence for centuries, although local populations were not significantly altered. The Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, a Greek-Persian blend, ruled until Cleopatra's death in 30 BC.
The Greek influence in Iran gradually faded, leading to a return to Iranian and Zoroastrian ideas. The Parthians, an Iranian nomadic people from Turkmenistan, rebelled against the Seleucids and established their empire. Mithridates I expanded Parthian control, following a familiar pattern of powerful empires expanding east and west. The Parthian Empire saw a synthesis of Greek and Iranian cultures, exemplified by the cult of Mithra, which later influenced Roman cults. The Parthians had a less autocratic, more aristocratic ruling system, contributing to political stability. They were a bitter rival to Rome, known for their mounted archers and the Parthian shot tactic. They defeated and killed Crassus in 53 BC. The Sasanian Empire, founded in 224 AD by a noble family from the same region as Cyrus, marked the last pre-Islamic iteration of the Persian Empire. It re-centered Iranian culture and made Zoroastrianism the state religion. The Sasanians were a dangerous rival to the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and saw the composition of the Jewish Babylonian Talmud. They also witnessed the rise of Manichaeism, a syncretic religion that, though repressed, had lasting influence on Gnostic Christianity. The Sasanian era was characterized by centralization, urbanization, and expanded trade relations with the East via the Silk Road. They developed alliances with China and controlled Indian Ocean trade. This period is considered the height of classical Persian culture, influencing later Muslim architecture, literature, and engineering, and possibly inventing the Baghdad Battery.
The Sasanian Empire, weakened by decades of war with the Byzantines, plagues, and Turkish invasions, collapsed due to internal civil war just as Arab Muslims, unified under Muhammad, launched their invasions. The Sasanians lost Mesopotamia by 636 AD and the entire empire fell less than 10 years later. The Arab conquerors burned Zoroastrian texts and forced conversions, though it took centuries for Islam to become dominant. Non-Muslims faced heavy taxes. This conquest was mirrored against the Byzantine Empire, leading to the vast Rashidun Caliphate. The relationship between Persia and Islam is complex, with forced conversion on one hand, and Persian culture heavily influencing Islam on the other, particularly the branch that spread to Asia. The Umayyad Caliphate, an Arab empire, incorporated Persian administrative and court protocols. Its vastness led to fragmentation and a religious split between Sunni and Shia Muslims over Muhammad's succession, a rivalry that persists today. The Abbasid Caliphate, formed with Iranian help, better integrated Persian culture and administration, establishing Baghdad as a major learning center. The Abbasids contributed to the Islamic Golden Age, a period of scientific and cultural development, building on Egyptian, Persian, Greek, and Roman knowledge, and exchanging ideas across Eurasia. Minority groups also contributed significantly. The Abbasids were responsible for works like '1001 Nights'.
The daily functioning of the Abbasid Caliphate continued until the Mongol invasions, which differed greatly in scale and brutality from previous nomadic incursions. The Mongols pillaged and destroyed much of what they conquered, notably Baghdad in 1258, ending the Islamic Golden Age and destroying vast libraries and irrigation systems. Persia recovered under the Mongol Ilkhanate, whose rulers eventually converted to Islam (Sufism). However, the Black Death in 1349 killed 30% of the population, followed by the brutal invasion of Timur (Tamerlane) in 1381, who killed millions. After Timur's empire collapsed, various nomadic tribes, such as the Black Sheep and White Sheep Turkman, ruled Persia, leaving the region politically shattered. This disorder fostered the growth of Shia religious movements. Shah Ismail, a religious leader of mixed descent, reunified a Persian Empire (the Safavid Empire) with familiar borders between 1501 and 1511, establishing Shia Islam as the dominant religion. The Safavids faced fierce rivalry with the Ottoman Empire but maintained friendly relations with the Mughal Empire in India and European powers. Shah Abbas I modernized the army, traded with the Dutch East India Company, and allied with the Austrian Habsburgs, regaining territories from the Ottomans. Persia exported carpets and textiles to Europe, and living standards were comparable. Safavid architecture produced monumental mosques in Isfahan.