Summary
Highlights
In January 1744, a 14-year-old German princess, Christen Sophie Freda Augusta, arrived in St. Petersburg, adopted the name Catherine, and was set to marry the heir to the Russian throne. Her hopes for a loving marriage were dashed, as her union would be loveless. Instead, she fell in love with Russia.
18 years later, in 1762, Peter Fodderovich became emperor. He was known for his erratic behavior, playing with toy soldiers and openly disliking Russia, preferring a more 'civilized' country like Sweden. Born Carl Peter Olrich, he was heir to both the Russian and Swedish thrones through his parents, Anna Petrovnner (daughter of Peter the Great) and the Duke of Holstein. Empress Elizabeth brought him to Russia, had him convert to Russian Orthodoxy, and renounce his claim to the Swedish throne. His marriage to Catherine, then 16, was equally difficult. Peter found her dull, and she showed no interest in his hobbies. Catherine, intelligent and well-educated, recorded her unhappiness in her diary, noting Peter's lack of love for her. Peter's advisors found his behavior unpredictable, citing his love for drinking and inappropriate remarks to foreign ambassadors. Some believed his erratic behavior stemmed from mental impairment or smallpox, though he had a brilliant education in sciences and languages.
In stark contrast to Peter, Catherine was determined to be accepted in her new homeland. She diligently studied Russian, its history, and even Old Slavonic, practicing with servants. She quickly became fluent, despite retaining a German accent.
Upon becoming emperor in 1762, Peter III enacted 192 decrees in 186 days. He abolished the secret chancellery and torture, offered amnesty to exiles, ended persecution of Old Believers, and secularized church lands. He also approved the first state bank, declared forests a national resource, and granted new liberties to the nobility. Despite these significant reforms, Peter showed little respect for religious ceremonies, often laughing and talking loudly, which contrasted sharply with Catherine's pious demeanor. Catherine's diary entries reveal her early awareness of Peter's oddities, such as his 'trial' and execution of a rat for climbing his toy fortress, highlighting their fundamental differences.
Catherine and Peter's fundamental incompatibility extended to their lack of intimacy, which became a dynastic crisis as Russia needed an heir. After nine years, Catherine became pregnant. While some accounts attribute this to Peter's surgery, others point to her relationship with her chamberlain, Sergey Saltikov, who is believed to be the father of her son, Paul Petrovvic. Empress Elizabeth took Paul away to raise him herself. Isolated, Catherine immersed herself in reading, particularly French philosophers like Diderot, Voltaire, and Montesquieu. She also cultivated relationships with other men, including Stanisław August Poniatowski, with whom she had a daughter, Anna, and later helped become the last Polish king. Her most significant relationship was with Grigory Orlov, a guards officer, and his brothers, who held considerable influence and loyalty within their regiments. By Peter's ascension, Catherine was pregnant with Orlov's child, a secret she had to protect. A clever scheme by her chamberlain, who set his own house on fire to distract Peter, allowed Catherine to give birth in secrecy. Peter eventually discovered the existence of Catherine's 'illegitimate' children, remarking on the mysterious source of her pregnancies. Peter, meanwhile, had his own mistress, Elizabeth Valenova, and planned to imprison Catherine and Paul to marry her.
Peter's admiration for Frederick the Great of Prussia led him to make peace with Russia's enemy, ceding Russian conquests and forcing Russian guard regiments to adopt Prussian uniforms and discipline, alienating them. The elite guards, influential in past palace revolutions, were outraged. On June 28, 1762, Catherine, supported by Alexei Orlov and other guards, left for St. Petersburg. By noon, a massive crowd followed her to the Winter Palace. Peter, awakened by news of Catherine's disappearance, learned she was gathering support in the city. Messengers sent to investigate joined Catherine. Peter then sailed to Kronstadt, hoping for naval loyalty, even bringing ladies of the court as hostages, but the fortress commandant declared loyalty to Empress Catherine. Faced with widespread defection and public opposition, Peter abdicated 24 hours later and was escorted to Ruptshire. Catherine, lacking a direct claim to the throne, presented her coup as the will of the people. Peter's letter, begging to leave Russia, was denied, as it was considered too risky. A week after the coup, Alexei Orlov informed Catherine that Peter was dead, likely murdered. Two years later, the other former emperor, Ivan VI, was also killed during a rescue attempt.
In September 1762, Catherine was crowned Empress in Moscow. Her coronation was a lavish affair, distributing 1,200 poods (over 19 tons) of silver to the populace and featuring grand festivities for three months. The highlight was the Great Imperial Crown, valued at 2 million rubles. Catherine dedicated herself to governance, preferring a simple, orderly life, including plain food and black currant juice instead of wine. She adhered to a strict daily routine, dedicating her mornings to work, meetings, and reading, and her evenings to visitors and cards.
Inspired by Enlightenment philosophers, Catherine aimed to establish 'enlightened absolutism' in Russia, promoting freedom of thought and speech and equality before the law. She initiated a legislative commission to draft new laws, drawing delegates from all classes except serfs and clergy. Before the commission met, Catherine wrote 'The Nakaz' (instruction), outlining her ideas on law, abolition of the death penalty, presumption of innocence, liberty, and serfdom. This document, considered dangerously liberal in France, placed Russia at the forefront of legal reform discussions in Europe. Despite Catherine's innovative approach, the commission's delegates, comprising nobles, townsmen, and peasants, revealed deep divisions and a desire among many to own serfs, contrary to Catherine's ideals of liberty. They did, however, unanimously try to bestow upon her titles like 'the Great' and 'Mother of the Nation', which Catherine dismissed as flattery, save for 'Mother of the Nation'.
With the legislative commission deadlocked, Catherine implemented reforms by decree, addressing issues like grain export and corruption. Her decision to place her former lover, Stanisław Poniatowski, on the Polish throne angered France and Turkey. In October 1768, Turkey declared war on Russia. Catherine, known for her talent recognition, appointed skilled generals like Count Peter Rumyantsev, despite his past loyalty to Peter III, and Alexey Orlov to lead her forces. Alexander Suvorov, an unassuming major she personally recognized, went on to become one of history's undefeated generals. Russia achieved significant victories against the Ottoman Empire: Rumyantsev's army defeated a numerically superior Ottoman force at the Larga River in July 1770; Orlov's naval squadron secured a stunning victory at Chesma, and Rumyantsev again decisively defeated the Turks at Kagul. Four years later, Suvorov sealed the final land victory at Kozludzha. These victories led ambitious European officers, such as José de Ribas (future founder of Odessa), to seek service with the Russian army.
While at war, Catherine also battled with her lover, Grigory Orlov. Their passionate and volatile relationship, despite having a son, never led to marriage, as her advisor Count Panin warned her against undermining her position as empress. After 12 years, Catherine tired of Orlov, especially after he went to Moscow during a plague outbreak in 1774, only to return and find her with a new favorite, Alexander Vasilchikov. Though Orlov was furious, Catherine insisted on obedience, and they remained friends. With her son Paul nearing adulthood and potential succession challenges, Catherine sought unwavering loyalty, turning to Grigory Alexandrovich Potemkin. Their relationship quickly deepened, with Catherine referring to him as her 'dear husband' in letters. They were rumored to have secretly married in 1774 and even had a daughter, Elizabeth. Despite their strong wills and occasional conflicts, Potemkin remained her trusted confidant and advisor, often influencing her decisions.
Potemkin spearheaded the colonization of Russia's new southern territories, Novorossiya, previously held by the Crimean Khanate. Following the 1774 Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji, these lands became part of the Russian Empire, and Catherine later annexed Crimea itself. In just four years, Potemkin brought 400,000 settlers and founded significant cities like Yekaterinoslav, Nikolayev, Mariupol, Kherson, and Sevastopol, the new base for Russia's Black Sea fleet. He meticulously organized Catherine's grand tour of these new lands, an unprecedented event involving an elaborate entourage of 3,000 people and a specially constructed sleigh office. The six-month, 6,034 km journey included 375 relay stations with fresh horses and provisions. Catherine visited 35 cities, witnessing staged welcomes, including an all-female 'Amazon' regiment and a reenactment of a Russian victory. The tour spawned the myth of 'Potemkin villages' — fake settlements designed to impress, though the towns were real, and the myth was largely perpetuated by foreign observers reluctant to believe in Russia's rapid consolidation of power. The triumph impressed the Austrian Emperor Joseph II and solidified Russia's international standing. This expansion, however, provoked another war with the Ottoman Empire.
The second war with the Ottoman Empire brought more brilliant Russian victories, with new naval hero Fyodor Ushakov excelling in battles against superior Ottoman fleets. The new peace treaty extended Russia's frontier to the Dniester River, adding key fortresses and laying the foundation for Odessa, confirming Russia's status as a major European power. Despite external triumphs, Catherine faced internal strife. Seven pretenders to the throne emerged during her first decade, claiming to be Peter III. Her 11th year saw the rise of Yemelyan Pugachev, a common Cossack and Seven Years' War veteran. He rallied peasants and Cossacks by claiming to be Peter III back from the dead, promising land and freedom, stirring up a widespread revolt in the Urals region. Pugachev's uprising plunged the region into anarchy, with his 80 followers rapidly growing into an army of 24,000. Manufacturing plants were destroyed, and widespread looting and violence occurred, resulting in thousands of deaths. Catherine initially responded with a manifesto, but with troops deployed against the Turks, she lacked forces to suppress the rebellion. Once peace was made, regular troops crushed the revolt. Pugachev was captured, brought to Moscow in a cage, and executed by quartering in January 1775, though Catherine mercifully ordered him beheaded first. Catherine attributed the rebellion to archaic and corrupt provincial administration, prompting her to embark on a massive reform of the empire.
Catherine initiated significant administrative reforms, doubling the number of provinces from 23 to 50 and subdividing them into districts. 216 towns received city status, each becoming a separate administrative unit. This system, with minor changes, lasted until the Russian Revolution and some elements remain today. The reforms were abruptly halted by the news of King Louis XVI's execution in France. Catherine, though not a friend of the king, was deeply disturbed. The French Revolution, inspired by the same Enlightenment ideals she initially embraced, instilled panic in her, fearing a similar fate for herself and Russia. She offered troops to crush the revolution, and from then on, viewed Enlightenment ideals with deep suspicion.
Catherine embraced the title 'Mother of the Nation,' tirelessly working to improve various aspects of Russian life, from provincial administration to midwifery. Her reign saw the birth of Russian journalism, to which she contributed. She participated in the partitions of Poland, annexing territories in Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania, and Latvia. She authored dozens of literary works, including comedies and operas, and oversaw the construction of grand buildings and monuments in Moscow and St. Petersburg. She initiated smallpox vaccination in Russia, personally vaccinating herself and her son. Her vast art collection became the foundation of the Hermitage Museum, and she patronized Russian artists. Her comprehensive achievements cemented her title as Catherine the Great. Her 34-year reign witnessed dramatic growth: population soared from 19 to 36 million, 29 new provinces and 144 new towns were founded. The army and navy vastly expanded, achieving 78 military victories. Industrial output, particularly cast iron, boomed, making Russia the world's leading producer. External trade and state revenue quadrupled. Catherine built upon Peter the Great's foundations, creating a powerful Russian Empire, a zenith of imperial glory for many future generations. Comparing her work to a 'drop of water falling in the ocean,' she remained mindful of the limitations of power. In 1796, aged 67, Catherine planned to bypass her unloved son Paul, making her 19-year-old grandson Alexander her heir, but she died of a stroke before completing the decree. Her 42-year-old son Paul became emperor, and his brief reign quickly demonstrated why Catherine had sought to remove him from succession.