Summary
Highlights
The United States begins to focus its attention on Cuba in 1895, driven by significant economic interests. Cuba's profitable sugar and mining industries had attracted American trade and investments, with U.S. citizens operating plantations and mines on the island. The Cuban struggle for independence from Spain led to blockades, disrupting U.S. trade and jeopardizing American investments due to the destruction caused by warfare, pushing the U.S. to seek profit optimization.
Spanish General Valeriano Weyler, known as 'the Butcher,' implemented brutal reconcentrado camps to suppress the Cuban rebellion. Over 300,000 suspected rebels were interned, with 30% dying from neglect, starvation, and lack of medical care. This cruelty was sensationalized by the 'Yellow Press,' which, led by William Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, used exaggerated stories to boost newspaper sales. This sensationalism ignited public outrage in the U.S., framing Spain as 'evil Catholics' persecuting 'poor Cuban people' and fueling demands for American intervention.
In February 1898, the leaked De Lome Letter, written by a Spanish diplomat, insulted U.S. President William McKinley, calling him 'weak.' This personal correspondence, intercepted by Cuban rebels and published in American newspapers, further inflamed U.S. public opinion against Spain. Shortly after, on February 15, 1898, the USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 266 American servicemen. Although later evidence suggested a mechanical cause, the immediate blame fell on Spain, fueled by the Yellow Press slogan 'Remember the Maine! To Hell with Spain!', leaving the U.S. public clamoring for war.
On April 11, McKinley requested a declaration of war from Congress. On April 20, the U.S. demanded Spain withdraw from Cuba. To counter Spain's suspicion that the U.S. sought to annex Cuba, the Teller Amendment was passed, stating that the U.S. would not annex the island. However, Spain refused to withdraw, leading the U.S. to blockade Cuba on April 22, an act Spain considered war. Spain declared war on April 24, followed by a U.S. declaration on April 25, officially beginning the Spanish-American War.
Despite Cuba being the primary casus belli, the Spanish-American War unexpectedly began in the Philippines. The U.S. had a pre-existing plan to attack Spain's colonial holdings, particularly the strategically important Philippines. In 1898, Commodore George Dewey led the steel-armored U.S. Asiatic Squadron to decisively defeat Spain's outdated wooden-and-unarmored fleet, seizing the coast of the Philippines. Simultaneously, the U.S. also fully conquered other Spanish territories: Guam and Puerto Rico.
The pivotal battle in Cuba was at San Juan Heights, two fortified hills, with San Juan Hill being the larger. Theodore Roosevelt, leaving his prestigious Navy position for a volunteer regiment, led his recruited 'Rough Riders' (a diverse group including gunslingers, outlaws, and Mexican Americans) to fight. Roosevelt's narrative emphasized his and his Rough Riders' heroic victory at San Juan Hill, leading to Spain's surrender. However, historical evidence indicates that the primary force fighting on San Juan Hill were the African American 'Buffalo Soldiers'—the 9th and 10th Cavalries and 24th and 25th Infantries—who received little credit from the mainstream U.S. as Roosevelt downplayed their leadership while crediting himself. Nonetheless, the Buffalo Soldiers became symbols of Black excellence and patriotism within the African American community.
The Spanish-American War officially concluded with the Treaty of Paris in December 1898. Spain recognized Cuba's independence, although the U.S. maintained military occupation under the guise of ensuring that independence. More significantly, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines became territories of the United States. To formalize the acquisition of the Philippines, the U.S. paid Spain $20 million as a gesture of goodwill. While the acquisition of the Philippines sparked controversy over U.S. imperialism, the decisive victory against a long-standing European power cemented the United States' new status as a formidable global power.