Summary
Highlights
The year 1848 saw a new wave of revolutionary movements sweep across Europe, following earlier uprisings in 1820-21 and 1830. These new movements were characterized by their widespread nature, encompassing most of the continent, and the radicalism of their demands, particularly concerning national sentiment. This period is referred to as the 'Springtime of Peoples.' Economic crises in 1846-47, leading to recession, business failures, and unemployment, further fueled these movements. While the insurrections largely failed in their immediate objectives, their revolutionary scope ended the era of Restoration and initiated a new political phase in Europe.
France was the epicenter of the 1848 revolutions. Since 1830, a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe d'Orléans had been in power, led by conservative liberals. The Guizot government pursued moderate policies, favoring the upper bourgeoisie and restricting voting rights to high-income individuals. Opposition parties launched the 'banquet campaign' to demand electoral reform. The prohibition of one such demonstration on February 22 led to violent protests. After two days of clashes, Louis-Philippe abdicated, and the Second Republic was proclaimed. A provisional government introduced freedom of expression and rights like the right to work.
The echo of the Parisian revolts quickly spread to central Europe. In Vienna, March saw insurrections targeting Metternich, the symbol of the Restoration, forcing his resignation. Revolts spread across the empire, emphasizing national independence. Budapest, Venice, Milan, and Prague saw uprisings. Provisional governments formed in Hungary and Bohemia demanding autonomy from Vienna. In Berlin, protests forced King Frederick William IV of Prussia to grant freedom of the press and convene a parliament. Workers in Berlin and Frankfurt made social demands. A nationalist fervor led to the Frankfurt Assembly in May, discussing the unification of a German nation.
In Italy, revolutionary fervor was already present in January with a separatist uprising in Palermo, leading Ferdinand II of Bourbon to grant a constitution. Other Italian sovereigns, under public pressure, also granted constitutions. These movements, aiming for constitutional regimes, soon intertwined with national questions. Inspired by the Austrian events, particularly in Venice and Milan (under Austrian rule), popular uprisings erupted. Daniele Manin led the Venice uprising, while Milan experienced the 'Five Days,' forcing Austrian troops to evacuate. This sparked patriotic enthusiasm, leading to Charles Albert of Savoy declaring war on Austria on March 23, joined by other Italian states and volunteers like Garibaldi. This marked the First War of Independence, uniting Italian states against Austrian presence.
Most 1848 uprisings were short-lived. In France, elections for the Constituent Assembly led to the defeat of radical and socialist forces, ushering in a moderate turn. Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, a nephew of Napoleon, was elected president, supported by conservatives. In 1851, he staged a coup, and in 1852, became Emperor Napoleon III, ending the Second Republic. In the German world, discussions about a 'Small Germany' (excluding Austria) or 'Greater Germany' (including Austria) continued. Frederick William IV dissolved the Prussian parliament and rejected the imperial crown, ending the German revolts. In the Austrian Empire, a new uprising in Vienna was brutally suppressed. Emperor Ferdinand I abdicated in favor of Francis Joseph, who implemented a conservative turnaround and suppressed autonomy demands, particularly from the Hungarian state.
Italy saw a different trajectory momentarily. The initial unity in the First War of Independence quickly dissolved as other Italian rulers abandoned Charles Albert. His troops were defeated at Custoza in July 1848. However, while other European revolutions receded, Italy remained volatile. separatist movements in Sicily, a republic in Venice under Manin, and a revolt in Rome in 1849 forcing the Pope to flee, led to the proclamation of the Roman Republic with figures like Mazzini and Garibaldi. Charles Albert renewed his attack on Austria but was defeated at Novara in March 1849, abdicating to Victor Emmanuel II. Eventually, most Italian revolts were suppressed: the Bourbons reclaimed Sicily, France under Louis-Napoléon re-established papal rule in Rome, and the Austrians quelled the Venetian insurrection. Despite their immediate failures, the 1848 movements set irreversible processes in motion, leading to Metternich's resignation, the eventual autonomy of Hungary within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Risorgimento leading to the Kingdom of Italy, and the unification of Germany under the German Empire.