Summary
Highlights
John Locke introduced the concept of natural rights (life, liberty, property) given by God, not monarchs, thus placing state power's origin with the people (popular sovereignty). This justified the English Bill of Rights. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's social contract theory proposed that governments derive their legitimacy from the people's consent to protect their natural rights, and that if a government fails to uphold the 'general will,' the people have the right to change it.
The Scientific Revolution challenged the geocentric model (Earth at the center) proposed by ancient Greeks like Aristotle and Ptolemy and supported by the Catholic Church. Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model (sun at the center), further developed by Kepler, who discovered elliptical planetary orbits. Galileo used a telescope to observe planetary moons, proving planets were not just celestial lights but physical bodies, further challenging the Church's views and leading to his heresy trial.
Advancements in medicine challenged Galen's humeral theory of the body. Paracelsus proposed that chemical imbalances caused disease, treatable by chemical remedies. William Harvey discovered the circulatory system, demonstrating blood's continuous flow through the body. Francis Bacon championed inductive reasoning (observation leading to general principles), and René Descartes advocated deductive reasoning (general principles leading to specifics). Together, they emphasized observation and experimentation, laying the groundwork for the scientific method, though older beliefs like astrology and alchemy persisted.
The Enlightenment, fueled by scientific reasoning, applied these methods to politics and society, particularly in France against absolutism. Voltaire criticized French social and religious institutions, advocating for religious tolerance, education, and free speech, believing in enlightened monarchs. Denis Diderot compiled the Encyclopedia, a massive collection of knowledge emphasizing rationality and criticizing traditional institutions and religion. These works challenged state power and led to increased tension.
Enlightenment thinkers developed new perspectives on religion. Voltaire conceived Deism, viewing God as a 'cosmic clockmaker' who created the world but does not intervene, rejecting biblical miracles. Diderot, also a Deist, opposed organized religion, and his Encyclopedia defined atheism. David Hume's skepticism argued that knowledge is limited to sensory input, leading people to question religious dogmas. This shift increasingly privatized religion and challenged both political and religious authority, fostering movements like German Pietism, which emphasized personal religious experience over institutional belonging.
Rousseau's views on gender advocated for rigid roles, with women subordinate to men and focused on domestic life. Mary Wollstonecraft vehemently countered this in 'A Vindication of the Rights of Women,' arguing that any perceived female inferiority stemmed from denied education and opportunities, not inherent differences. Adam Smith applied Enlightenment principles to economics in 'The Wealth of Nations,' criticizing mercantilism and advocating for free markets guided by supply and demand, promoting national prosperity.
Enlightenment ideas spread through the printing press and new institutions like salons, hosted often by women, where intellectuals debated new concepts. This spread fostered dissatisfaction with existing political structures, foreshadowing future revolutions. Some monarchs adopted 'enlightened absolutism,' implementing reforms to consolidate power. Frederick II of Prussia (Frederick the Great) saw himself as a benefactor, patronized philosophers, and reformed justice. Catherine II of Russia (Catherine the Great) outlawed torture and capital punishment, reformed education, and patronized the arts, though these reforms also served to strengthen her rule. By 1800, religious toleration for Christian minorities and Jews increased, influenced by Locke's separation of church and state, as exemplified by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and Catherine's policies.
Rapid transitions occurred from pre-industrial to post-industrial Europe. Population dramatically increased due to falling death rates (advances in medicine like smallpox vaccine by Edward Jenner) and the disappearance of the bubonic plague. Thomas Malthus, however, warned that food supply might not keep pace. The Agricultural Revolution solved this problem with increased arable land (drained wetlands), improved crop rotation (using crops like beans and clover to replenish soil), and technological advancements like selective breeding and Jethro Tull's seed drill. Better transportation systems also facilitated food distribution.
The European marriage pattern saw people marrying later, focusing on establishing wealth for nuclear families, leading to fewer births. However, illegitimate births spiked, indicating increased premarital relations, though unwed mothers still faced social stigma. Dedication to children increased, with thinkers like Rousseau advocating for childhood as a separate, elevated stage. Urbanization significantly increased as agricultural efficiency reduced the need for farm labor, leading many to move to cities. This influx caused problems like crowded, unsanitary tenements and increased crime and prostitution, prompting authorities to enact laws like England's Contagious Diseases Act.
The Reading Revolution, driven by the printing press, diversified reading materials from religious texts to history, law, and science despite censorship efforts. Newspapers and pamphlets also proliferated. Explorers' accounts exposed Europeans to diverse cultures, sometimes challenging existing social norms. Art shifted from Baroque (religious themes, royal power) to Neoclassicism (simplicity, symmetry), appealing to the growing bourgeoisie. Literature like Daniel Defoe's 'Robinson Crusoe' and Jane Austen's novels reflected these new interests. The Consumer Revolution, fueled by industrialization and disposable income, led to increased demand for goods, fostering a new concern for privacy (evident in home design with specific rooms like the boudoir) and new leisure venues like coffee houses, which became hubs for discussing revolutionary ideas.