Summary
Highlights
The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 led to the secession of South Carolina and six other Southern states, forming the Confederate States of America. They seized federal property, leading to the shelling of Fort Sumter and the start of the Civil War. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina subsequently joined the Confederacy.
The North held significant material advantages in manufacturing, transportation, and a more unified public opinion post-Lincoln's death. The South had the advantage of fighting on familiar territory and strong commitment from its white population, hoping for European intervention due to economic ties. The North funded the war through taxes, paper currency, and borrowing, and its army grew from volunteers to conscripts, leading to draft riots, particularly in New York City.
President Lincoln, facing a divided nation and opposition in the North, asserted strong presidential powers, including expanding the army, blockading the South, and suspending habeas corpus. He gathered a diverse cabinet and despite initial struggles and challenges to his reelection, Union victories, especially the capture of Atlanta, secured his second term.
Republicans were divided on slavery, but momentum grew for emancipation. The Confiscation Acts progressively freed slaves associated with the Confederacy. After the Union victory at Antietam, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, declaring all slaves in Confederate states free, fundamentally changing the war's purpose to include abolishing slavery. 186,000 emancipated Black Americans eventually served in Union forces.
The Confederate Constitution mirrored the U.S. Constitution but explicitly sanctioned slavery and state sovereignty. Jefferson Davis served as provisional president. The Confederacy faced significant challenges from states' rights sentiments hindering national authority. Economically, the South struggled with inflation due to printing excessive paper currency to finance the war, and a critical manpower shortage led to failed attempts to conscript slaves.
The war devastated the Southern economy and landscape. Women in both North and South took on non-traditional roles, particularly in nursing, and many Southern women were forced to seek employment after the war due to male population decimation. Lincoln struggled to find a general who shared his vision of total war until Ulysses S. Grant took command in 1864, while Jefferson Davis maintained tight control over Confederate military strategy.
European powers, particularly Britain and France, sympathized with the Confederacy due to economic ties and a desire for a weaker U.S., but never formally recognized or intervened on behalf of the South as Union victory became more likely. New technologies like repeating firearms, improved artillery, ironclad ships, railroads, and the telegraph transformed warfare, making battles deadlier and emphasizing fortifications, logistical coordination, and large-scale troop movements.
The Civil War was marked by brutal combat and immense casualties. Major turning points included the Union seizure of New Orleans and the western theater, and critically, the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863, which halted the Confederate advance into the North. Under Grant's leadership, General Sherman implemented 'total war' tactics, devastating the South. Grant's forces ultimately captured Richmond, leading to Lee's surrender at Appomattox on April 9, 1865, effectively ending the war.
The Civil War, the deadliest in U.S. history with approximately 750,000 deaths, profoundly impacted nearly every American. Initially fought to preserve the Union, it ultimately became a struggle to eradicate slavery, largely driven by African Americans and women who took on critical wartime roles. The war settled fundamental issues of freedom and justice, culminating in the ratification of the 13th Amendment in 1865, which abolished slavery across the United States.