Summary
Highlights
Moctezuma's Aztec Empire was at its peak in 1502 when reports of pale-skinned men began to trickle in from the coast. Initially, these encounters seemed innocuous to Moctezuma, as his capital was accustomed to foreigners.
In Cuba, Governor Diego Velázquez planned a third expedition for riches, appointing Hernán Cortés as caudillo for exploration and trade. However, Velázquez soon distrusted Cortés and replaced him. Cortés hastily left for the Yucatán on February 18, 1519, with 530 European soldiers, Cuban natives, African slaves, horses, war dogs, and cannons.
Cortés's first victory was linguistic; he found Jerónimo de Aguilar, a Spanish priest who knew a Maya language. After defeating local Maya at Petonchan, Cortés received women, including La Malinche, who spoke Maya and Nahuatl. This dual translation enabled diplomacy between the Spanish and natives, proving language as crucial as military might.
Cortés landed in Veracruz, where Moctezuma's diplomats arrived with gifts. Cortés inquired about Moctezuma's gold, prompting the Aztec emperor to ponder how to deal with the strange foreigners. While Moctezuma's advisors urged caution, local chiefs informed Cortés of widespread discontent with Aztec rule and potential allies among Totonacs, lords, and especially the Tlaxcalans, changing Cortés's goal from mere gold to empire.
To legitimize his unauthorized actions, Cortés founded Veracruz, established a town council, and had himself re-appointed as 'captain of his majesty’s armies.' With this legal maneuver and native allies, Cortés set out for Tenochtitlan.
Entering Tlaxcala territory, Cortés's forces faced violent encounters with Tlaxcalan and Otomi warriors. Despite suffering casualties, the Spanish's superior weaponry inflicted heavy losses on the densely packed native armies. Realizing the Spanish could be useful, the Tlaxcalans, who were perpetual enemies of the Aztec Empire, formed an alliance with Cortés on September 23, 1519.
Ignoring Moctezuma's warnings about the Tlaxcalans, Cortés marched his multi-ethnic army to the allied city of Cholula. Suspecting a conspiracy from the Cholulan lords or Moctezuma, Cortés gathered the lords at the temple of Quetzalcóatl. Once inside, the Spanish closed the doors and, on Cortés's signal, massacred the lords and continued the killing in the streets, leaving 3,000 dead and the city in flames.
On November 8, 1519, Cortés and his allies marched into Tenochtitlan. Moctezuma met Cortés, upholding Mexica hospitality. The Spanish were housed in a palace. Soon, concerned about their precarious situation, Cortés decided to act. On November 14, he accused Moctezuma of treason and compelled him to move to the Spanish lodgings as a prisoner, ruling his empire under Spanish control. This move began to breed resentment among the Mexica.
While Cortés left Tenochtitlan to confront Panfilo de Narváez, who was sent to capture him, Pedro de Alvarado was left in charge, guarding Moctezuma. Alvarado, without La Malinche for translation, grew paranoid, torturing citizens and suspecting a revolt. During the Feast of Toxcatl, Alvarado ordered his troops to attack the unarmed dancers, resulting in 3,000 deaths and the massacre of much of the Aztec nobility. This ignited intense fury among the Mexica, who organized a counter-attack and besieged the Spanish quarters, rallying behind Moctezuma's brother, Cuitláhuac.