Summary
Highlights
Before the 1960s and 70s, comparing psychology and management across different nations was a significant challenge. Geert Hofstede, a Dutch cross-cultural anthropologist, revolutionized this field in the late 70s and 80s by focusing on values, attitudes, and beliefs rather than rituals. He is now considered the father of modern cross-cultural comparisons.
Hofstede conducted a groundbreaking study involving over 100,000 IBM employees across more than 70 countries. He observed that despite having similar training and socio-economic backgrounds, employees' values, job expectations, and perceptions of ideal organizations differed significantly. He reduced these differences to four 'dimensions of national culture,' which act like health measures (blood pressure, pulse, cholesterol) to quickly understand cultural differences. His work has profoundly influenced the field, though it now requires revision.
Inspired by Hofstede, Israeli scholar Shalom Schwartz focused on the study of values, defining them as 'guiding principles in people's lives.' He explored what individuals consider important, such as religion, education, or family, noting that while many values are shared, cultural differences exist.
Schwartz measured differences within and between nations, regions, and individuals. His findings are summarized in a 'cultural map of the world.' This map shows distinct groupings: wealthy Western European and English-speaking countries on one side, with the Muslim world and South/Southeast Asia at the opposite extreme. Confucian Asia (East Asia, Japan, Chinese-speaking countries) also lies at that extreme, while Latin America and Central Europe are positioned in the center, illustrating significant cultural value differences globally.