Summary
Highlights
On February 15, 1898, the USS Maine, sent to protect American interests during the Cuban War of Independence, mysteriously explodes in Havana Harbor. The explosion results in the death of 266 Navy men and fuels suspicion, with many in the press immediately blaming Spain.
The late 19th century marks America's age of imperialism. The Spanish-American War's roots trace back to the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, which declared the Americas off-limits to further European colonization. As Spain's power wanes, holding only a few colonies like Cuba and the Philippines, these territories yearn for independence.
By the mid-19th century, the U.S. considers annexing Cuba, a notion that gains traction among Southern states. Though the 1854 Ostend Manifesto suggests forcibly taking Cuba if Spain refuses to sell, the American Civil War delays such actions. Cuba's Ten Years' War for independence (1868-1878) against Spain, led by figures like Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, uses American revolutionary rhetoric, garnering U.S. sympathy despite America's non-intervention.
In 1873, the U.S.-flagged ship 'Virginius', used to supply Cuban revolutionaries, is captured by a Spanish warship. Its captain and 53 American, British, and Cuban crew members are executed, sparking calls for war in the U.S. Cooler heads prevail, but U.S.-Spanish relations remain strained. The incident reinforces the American desire to support Cuban independence.
Despite popular support for Cuba Libre, big business initially opposes intervention. However, Spain's appointment of General Valeriano Weyler to Cuba in 1896, who implements brutal 'reconcentration camps' leading to the deaths of thousands, shifts public opinion. American newspapers, particularly William Randolph Hearst's 'New York Journal', engage in 'yellow journalism', publishing sensationalized (and often exaggerated) stories like the 'Clemencia Arango' incident to provoke emotional responses and push for intervention.
Cuban riots in January 1898, fueled by Spanish loyalists' opposition to autonomy plans, raise concerns for American citizens and interests. President McKinley, a Civil War veteran, is hesitant to go to war, but public and congressional pressure mounts. The USS Maine is sent to Havana Harbor. On February 9, 1898, Hearst's 'Journal' publishes the De Lôme Letter, a private letter from Spain's chief diplomat to the U.S., Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, criticizing President McKinley as "weak." This insult further enrages the American public and government, despite Spain's eventual apology, intensifying calls for war just before the Maine explosion.
Following the USS Maine's explosion, President McKinley remains cautious, appointing a naval board of inquiry. However, William Randolph Hearst's 'Journal' immediately blames Spain, using headlines like "torpedo hole discovered...by government divers" and promoting the rallying cry "Remember the Maine, to hell with Spain!" The Navy Board of Inquiry's report ultimately attributes the explosion to a submarine mine, but does not assign blame, leaving the door open for public and media speculation against Spain.
On March 17, 1898, Senator Redfield Proctor, a Civil War veteran, delivers a vivid and harrowing account of the suffering in Cuba under Spanish rule, shocking Congress. His credible report, devoid of sensationalism, convinces even business-minded Republicans of the need for intervention. On April 11, McKinley, influenced by public sentiment and the Maine report, sends a message to Congress requesting authorization for military intervention to end hostilities and establish a stable government in Cuba.
Congress debates McKinley's request, with some hesitant about annexing Cuba. Senator Henry Teller proposes an amendment, the Teller Amendment, vowing that the U.S. will not annex Cuba and will "leave the government and control of the island to its people." This ensures the war is not seen as a conquest. On April 19, 1898, Congress passes a joint resolution recognizing Cuban independence and authorizing military force. McKinley signs it, and on April 21, Spain and the U.S. sever diplomatic relations, officially beginning the "splendid little war."