Summary
Highlights
Early hints of the Nabataeans appear in Assyrian texts as nomadic desert dwellers. Initially engaging in piracy, they soon found it more profitable to protect and organize trade caravans. By the end of the first millennium BC, they dominated desert trade, facilitating the flow of spices, incense, textiles, and other goods through their city, Petra. Frankincense and myrrh, valuable resins used in medicine, spiritual rituals, and for their aromas, were central to their trade. Herodotus's tales of winged serpents guarding these plants may have been early disinformation campaigns to protect the lucrative industry.
Incense was vital in the ancient world for alleviating city odors and for spiritual purposes, creating a sacred space in temples. Its connection to the divine made it integral to royalty, used in anointing rituals and as offerings to kings and deities. The high demand for incense, along with other luxury goods, positioned the Nabataeans at the heart of a crucial industry, leading to their immense wealth and transforming Petra into a global crossroads.
The Nabataeans, though not primarily warriors, were adept at defending themselves. When Alexander the Great's empire fragmented, King Antigonus the One-Eyed sought to seize Petra's wealth. His general, Athenaeus, raided Petra, but the returning Nabataean men, on camelback, quickly annihilated the Greek forces. A subsequent invasion led by Demetrius was thwarted by the Nabataeans' strategic use of hidden water reservoirs and their willingness to pay off their enemies, buying them over a century of independence.
Despite widespread literacy, no direct Nabataean histories survive, leaving scholars to rely on external accounts. Papyrus archives from Ptolemaic Egypt and writings by Flavius Josephus offer glimpses into Nabataean life, including their high regard for women and friendship with the Judaeans. Inscriptions from sites like Hegra, the Nabataean's second capital, provide the most direct evidence of their culture. These tomb inscriptions served as legal documents, protected against desecration by curses, and reveal details about their gods, family structures, legal system, and various professions within their society.
The towering Khazneh, or Great Treasury, is Petra's most iconic monument, believed to be a royal mausoleum. Its design, a fusion of Nabataean rock-carving with Greek architectural styles and Egyptian deities, symbolizes Petra's status as a major metropolis. Carved with immense skill, its construction required dangerous labor. Other monuments like the Monastery and Corinthian Tomb followed this artistic tradition. Accounts from Strabo describe Nabataean life, including their diet, fermented 'water bread,' colorful clothing, and a noticeable lack of slavery, highlighting their unique societal values.
By the end of the 1st century BC, the expanding Roman Empire, a major consumer of incense, turned its attention to the wealthy Nabataean lands. Emperor Augustus sent Aelius Gallus on an expedition to find direct trade routes to Arabia. However, the Nabataean guide Syllaeus expertly sabotaged the mission, leading the Romans on a treacherous journey that ended in failure and significant losses. This bought the Nabataeans temporary independence. However, after Rabbel II's death in 106 AD, Emperor Trajan annexed Nabataea without significant resistance, rebranding the province as Arabia Petraea.
Initially, Roman annexation had little impact on the daily lives of Petra's citizens, and their advanced water systems were maintained. However, broader cultural and economic shifts, particularly the rise of Christianity, severely impacted Petra. As Christian worship displaced pagan rituals, demand for incense plummeted. Moreover, new sea trade routes to Egypt bypassed Petra, leading to a decline in its importance as a trading hub. A devastating earthquake in 363 AD destroyed half the city, crippling its critical water infrastructure and accelerating its decline. Although some attempts at rebuilding and repopulation occurred, a subsequent earthquake in the 5th century and eventual abandonment left Petra a city of ruins, its legacy largely forgotten until its rediscovery.
In 1812, Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, disguised as an Arab, traveled through Jordan. Tasked by the African Association to find Timbuktu, his journey led him through the desert where guides spoke of mysterious ruins in Wadi Mousa. Feigning a desire to sacrifice a goat, he gained access to the hidden valley. Navigating a narrow chasm, he discovered the ancient city of Petra, an enormous mausoleum carved into red sandstone, later identified as the Khazneh. This marked the first modern European encounter with the legendary Nabataean city, once a powerful trading kingdom that thrived in the harsh desert.
Petra's unique geology, particularly the Umm Ishrin sandstone, provides its distinctive red hues. The Arabian Plate's tectonic activity exposed these ancient sandstone layers. Petra's site has been inhabited for at least 7,000 years due to a freshwater spring. The Nabataeans developed sophisticated water control systems, including aqueducts, underground plumbing, and stucco-lined reservoirs to collect rainwater. This expertise allowed Petra to support a large population and frequent trade caravans, transforming the arid landscape into one with lush gardens and fountains.