Summary
Highlights
In 1856, fossils discovered in Germany's Neander Valley were identified as Homo neanderthalensis, the first known extinct human species. Initial interpretations, influenced by limited understanding of geological timelines, portrayed Neanderthals as unintelligent and inferior, leading to persistent misconceptions despite later scientific advancements.
Over a century of archaeological discoveries revealed more accurate details about Neanderthals. They had larger eyes, were shorter and more muscular than modern humans, with higher caloric needs and slightly larger bodies, hearts, and brains. They lived across Europe and Western Asia for over 350,000 years, overlapping with Homo sapiens for at least their final 10,000 years.
Archaeological finds suggest Neanderthals led complex lives. Evidence from an injured Neanderthal in Iraq and an elderly individual in France indicates that they cared for their sick and injured, providing extensive support. Signs of burial also point to their concern beyond immediate survival, suggesting compassion for the ailing and dead, and even medicinal use of anti-inflammatory and antibiotic plants.
Contrary to earlier beliefs of brute force, Neanderthals demonstrated sophisticated hunting techniques for both large and small game, possibly using snares and fast-moving projectiles. They crafted diverse tools, used birch bark glue to affix them, shaped hardwood with fire, and made reinforced string from bark fibers.
Accumulated evidence suggests Neanderthals engaged in symbolic thought, traditionally attributed solely to Homo sapiens. This includes selective removal of bird feathers, painting and perforating shells, wrapping eagle talons, making markings on bones, and creating cave paintings, indicating a capacity for art, ornamentation, and possibly spiritual or ceremonial practices.
The sequencing of the Neanderthal genome in 2010 revealed interbreeding between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, with modern humans retaining up to 4% Neanderthal DNA. The prevailing theory suggests that Neanderthals were gradually absorbed into larger Homo sapiens populations. This leads to a shift in understanding human evolution as a 'braided stream' rather than a simple tree, highlighting the shared evolutionary journey of different hominin groups.