Summary
Highlights
According to ancient Roman legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus. They were said to have been abandoned as infants and raised by a she-wolf. After a conflict, Romulus killed Remus and became the first king of Rome. Six kings followed, with the last, Tarquin the Proud, being expelled in 509 BC, marking the end of the monarchy and the establishment of the Roman Republic.
The Roman Republic was governed by two elected consuls and a Senate. A dictator could be appointed during times of crisis. The Republic expanded, clashing with Carthage, the dominant naval power. The three Punic Wars, especially the second where Hannibal invaded Roman territory, ended with Rome's victory and the destruction of Carthage.
By the 1st century BC, Rome controlled the Mediterranean. Julius Caesar rose to power in 49 BC, gaining significant popularity. His refusal to disarm his army upon entering Italy sparked a civil war. Caesar defeated his enemies and declared himself dictator for life, leading to his assassination by the Senate in 44 BC. Another civil war ensued between Mark Antony and Octavian, with Octavian ultimately triumphing at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC.
After conquering Egypt, Rome transitioned from a republic to an empire, with Octavian becoming the first emperor, Augustus, in 27 BC. During Augustus's reign, Jesus Christ was born. Initially, the Romans tolerated Christianity, viewing it as a sect of Judaism. However, as it spread among pagans, threatening the emperor's divine status, Christians faced severe persecution, notably under Emperors Diocletian and Nero.
The 1st and 2nd centuries AD saw the 'Five Good Emperors,' when the Roman Empire reached its territorial peak under Emperor Trajan. However, the 3rd century brought crises, including conflicts with the Persians, the Cyprian Plague, and internal instability. Emperor Diocletian attempted to divide the empire into a Tetrarchy, which ultimately failed. Emperor Constantine later moved the capital to Byzantium (Constantinople) and recognized Christianity, converting to it himself.
Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official and sole religion of the Roman Empire, persecuting pagans, closing ancient temples, and banning the Olympic Games. He also definitively divided the Roman Empire into two separate entities: the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) with its capital in Constantinople, adopting Greek and Orthodox Christianity, and the Western Roman Empire with its capital in Milan (later Ravenna), retaining Latin and Catholic Christianity.
During the 5th century AD, the Western Roman Empire weakened and succumbed to Germanic invasions, falling in 476 AD to the Goths. This led to the establishment of feudal kingdoms in Western Europe, forming the basis of modern nations like England, France, and Germany. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, however, continued for another thousand years until its fall to the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II in 1453 AD, marking the complete end of the Roman Empire.