Early National Period

Jefferson's presidency (1801-1809) continued to grapple with British and French impressment. In 1807, he enacted the Embargo Act, halting all US trade with foreign nations to prevent further seizures of American sailors. This policy, while aiming to protect American lives, severely harmed the US economy by preventing the sale of agricultural and manufactured goods, leading to widespread unhappiness.

The Early National Period spans from the Declaration of Independence in 1776 to 1817, encompassing the first four US presidents: George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison. This era focused on establishing and solidifying the new nation under the Constitution.

The first official government of the United States was the Articles of Confederation, approved in 1777 and effective in 1781. It was an intentionally weak government, driven by fear of a strong federal authority reminiscent of British rule. It featured only a legislative branch with limited powers, requiring unanimous consent for amendments and a three-quarters vote for laws, making effective governance almost impossible.

The Confederation Congress had only four powers: settling disputes between states (like the Maryland-Virginia Potomac River dispute), declaring war, signing peace treaties, and raising money by borrowing or printing. Crucially, it lacked the power to tax, leading to financial instability and a virtually non-existent military after the Revolutionary War.

Recognizing the Articles' failures, wealthy Caucasian men met in Philadelphia in 1787 to create the US Constitution, which established a three-branch government (legislative, judicial, executive) with a system of checks and balances. The most significant addition was the power to tax, essential for a functioning government. The Preamble emphasizes national survival and a balance of individual rights with the common good.

George Washington, elected in 1789, served two terms. He was instrumental in transforming the Constitution from a document into a functioning reality, including establishing the judicial branch through the Judiciary Act of 1789. His choice to be addressed as 'Mr. President' symbolized equality among Caucasian men, setting a democratic tone.

During Washington's presidency, two political parties emerged: the Federalists, founded by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson. Federalists advocated for wealthy Caucasian male suffrage, an industrialized economy like Great Britain, and an alliance with Britain. Democratic-Republicans championed wider Caucasian male suffrage, an agrarian society of small farmers, and an alliance with France. Washington, despite his warnings against parties, leaned Federalist.

Great Britain's impressment (kidnapping) of American sailors during its war with France prompted Jay's Treaty in 1794. Negotiated by John Jay, the treaty saw the US agree to cease trade with France and bar French ships from American harbors. In return, Britain promised to remove soldiers from US soil (which they delayed until 1816) and made no commitment to end impressment. This pro-British stance affirmed Washington's Federalist leanings.

John Adams, the only Federalist president, served one term (1797-1801). He faced continued impressment by France, leading to the undeclared Quasi-War (1798-1801). Fearing French invasion and influence from Democratic-Republicans, Adams signed the Alien and Sedition Acts. The Alien Act allowed the president to deport any foreigner without cause, and the Naturalization Act extended the path to citizenship to 12 years. The Sedition Act suppressed negative speech against political leaders, effectively limiting freedom of speech and weakening Democratic-Republican campaigns.

Thomas Jefferson won the 1800 election, largely due to public dislike of the Sedition Act. However, he tied with his running mate, Aaron Burr, sending the election to the Federalist-controlled House of Representatives. Alexander Hamilton intervened, urging Federalists not to vote for Burr, allowing Jefferson to win. This election also marked the first instance of mudslinging, with accusations of Jefferson having a sexual relationship with his enslaved woman, Sally Hemmings. Circumstantial and DNA evidence strongly suggest Jefferson fathered children with Hemmings, highlighting the complex and dark side of his legacy.

James Madison, Jefferson's successor (1809-1817), replaced the Embargo Act with the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809, which prohibited trade only with Britain and France. This proved ineffective, leading to Macon's Bill Number Two in 1810. This bill offered to resume trade with whichever nation, Britain or France, first stopped impressing American sailors, while cutting off trade with the other.

Macon's Bill Number Two ultimately led to the War of 1812. A deceptive French ambassador convinced Madison that France would cease impressment if the US cut off trade with Britain, and then urged Madison to declare war on Britain, citing impressment, British support for Native Americans, and unfulfilled treaty obligations. The US declared war in 1812, with initial fighting in 1813 leading to an unsuccessful invasion of Canada.

In 1814, Britain invaded the US, burning Washington D.C. Dolly Madison famously saved George Washington's portrait. A tornado and subsequent American counterattack forced the British to retreat. The British then attacked Baltimore, inspiring Francis Scott Key's "Star-Spangled Banner." The war, effectively a stalemate, led to the Treaty of Ghent signed on Christmas Eve, 1814. This treaty recognized US independence, ended impressment, and saw all British soldiers finally leave American soil.

Despite the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, news traveled slowly. In January 1815, the Battle of New Orleans occurred, a decisive American victory led by Andrew Jackson against a larger British force. This battle, though fought after the war's end, convinced many Americans, particularly Caucasian Americans, that they were 'God's chosen people,' leading to the Age of Reform and a desire to create a more 'Godly Society'.