Summary
Highlights
Manifest Destiny was a 19th-century belief that states it was God's given destiny for United States settlers to expand across North America, spreading their institutions and traditions across the continent. Supporters promoted three main themes: the virtue of American people and institutions, the moral mission to remake the world, and a divine mandate for this mission.
The concept's roots trace back to John Winthrop's 1630 'City Upon a Hill' sermon, advocating for a virtuous community as an example of democracy. This idea, echoed by Thomas Paine's 'Common Sense' promoting a free society, formed the ideological basis. However, later debates arose over whether the U.S. should lead by example or actively annex new lands.
By the 1800s, American pride in freedom and democracy fueled a desire for expansion. The 1803 Louisiana Purchase, though expensive, was largely a purchase of imperial rights from France, as Native American tribes occupied most of the land. This led to conflicts and the forced removal of tribes, including the tragic Trail of Tears.
After the War of 1812, the U.S. intensified its efforts to conquer Native American lands. John Quincy Adams, as Secretary of State, was a key proponent of expansion, believing North America was destined for a single, unified nation. He negotiated crucial treaties like the Treaty of 1818, the Florida Purchase Treaty, and drafted the Monroe Doctrine to limit European colonization in the Western Hemisphere.
In 1845, journalist John L. O'Sullivan coined the term 'Manifest Destiny' in an article advocating for the annexation of Texas, stating it was 'our Manifest Destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying Millions.'
President James K. Polk, inaugurated in 1845, aggressively pursued the annexation of Texas and resolved the Oregon Country boundary dispute. The annexation of Texas was controversial, opposed by anti-slavery activists and the Whig party, and led to the Mexican-American War due to Mexico's territorial claims.
After early U.S. victories in the Mexican-American War, some Eastern Democrats called for the annexation of all of Mexico. This proposal was controversial due to the belief that the U.S. should not impose its will on unwilling populations and the reluctance to extend U.S. citizenship to people of Mexican descent, as articulated by Senator John C. Calhoun.
The debate over annexing Mexico exposed a deep division among Manifest Destiny supporters: some believed in expanding regardless of racial makeup, while others only favored expansion into predominantly white areas. This fracture was temporarily mitigated by the Mexican Cession in 1848, where Mexico ceded vast territories to the U.S.
Concurrently, the U.S. and Britain had a standoff over the Oregon Country. O'Sullivan again invoked 'Manifest Destiny' to argue for claiming all of Oregon, asserting a critical mission to spread republican democracy. However, President Polk negotiated with Britain, dividing the territory at the 49th parallel, prioritizing avoidance of simultaneous wars with Mexico and Britain.
Following the Mexican-American War and Oregon settlement, disagreements over the expansion of slavery emerged among Manifest Destiny's supporters. Southern slave owners funded illegal 'filibustering' missions into Mexico, Cuba, and Nicaragua to expand slavery, further dividing the movement and contributing to the catalysts for the U.S. Civil War.
The term briefly re-emerged in the late 19th century, notably articulated by missionary Josiah Strong and echoed in the 1892 Republican Party platform. President William McKinley cited it to promote overseas expansion, such as the annexation of Hawaii. While the term is less prevalent today, the theme of America's mission to promote democracy abroad continues to influence U.S. foreign policy, seen in interventions like the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.