Summary
Highlights
The Second War of Independence (1859) began with French and Piedmontese forces, led by Napoleon III and Victor Emmanuel II, achieving rapid victories against Austria at Montebello, Palestro, Magenta, Solferino, and San Martino. Garibaldi's 'Cacciatori delle Alpi' also contributed to the advance in Lombardy. These victories sparked insurrections in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the Papal Legations (Romagna and Bologna), leading to the formation of provisional governments that sought annexation to Piedmont. However, Napoleon III, concerned by the scale of unification, the cost of the war, and Prussian threats, signed an armistice with Austria at Villafranca (July 1859), ceding Lombardy (minus Mantua and Peschiera) to France, which then transferred it to Piedmont, but requiring the dissolution of the provisional governments in Central Italy. Cavour, feeling betrayed, resigned.
Despite Villafranca, the desire for unification in Central Italy remained strong, supported by Great Britain. Cavour returned to power in 1860, securing Napoleon III's agreement to annex Central Italy through plebiscites, in exchange for Nice and Savoy. This set the stage for democratic action. In May 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi, with a thousand 'Redshirts' (the 'Expedition of the Thousand'), sailed from Genoa to Sicily. Exploiting discontent in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Garibaldi rapidly conquered Sicily despite initial Bourbon resistance at Calatafimi. Acclaimed as a liberator, he declared himself dictator in the name of Victor Emmanuel II. Cavour, initially cautious, openly supported Garibaldi after his successes. Garibaldi then crossed to the mainland, advancing rapidly to Naples, where he was welcomed as a hero in September 1860. Fearing a republican movement, Cavour orchestrated Piedmontese forces to invade the Papal States (Umbria and Marches) to meet Garibaldi. After plebiscites confirmed the annexation of Central and Southern Italy to the Kingdom of Sardinia, Garibaldi ceremonially handed over his conquests to Victor Emmanuel II at Teano. On March 17, 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy, marking the culmination of the Risorgimento, though Venice and Rome remained outside the new kingdom.
After Napoleon's exile, the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) aimed to restore Europe's pre-revolutionary order. Key figures like Metternich, Castlereagh, Talleyrand, Nesselrode, and Hardenberg redrew borders based on legitimacy and balance of power. Italy saw the dismantling of Napoleonic structures, the creation of the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia under Austrian influence, and the restoration of various dukedoms and the Papal States. The Kingdom of Sardinia regained its territories and acquired Liguria. Alliances like the Holy Alliance and the Quadruple Alliance were formed to maintain this new order and suppress revolutionary movements.
The restoration brought harsh censorship and police control, driving liberal and democratic ideas underground. Secret societies like the Carboneria, Federati, and Adelfi emerged across Europe, seeking to overthrow absolutist regimes. These societies, structured with secrecy to protect members, advocated for civil liberties, national independence, and unity. Early insurrections in Spain (1820), the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1820), and Piedmont (1821) were quickly suppressed due to a lack of coordination and popular support, highlighting the limitations of clandestine operations. Renewed revolts in 1830-1831, particularly in the Emilian duchies and Romagna, also failed under Austrian intervention, leading to the conclusion that sectarian organization was insufficient without broader popular involvement.
Giuseppe Mazzini, a Carbonaro from Genoa, concluded after the failed revolts that sectional organizations were ineffective. He founded the 'Giovine Italia' (Young Italy) in 1831, emphasizing national outreach and popular participation for Italian unification. Mazzini's vision was a free, independent, and republican Italy, achieved through national insurrection and guerrilla warfare, without foreign aid. He believed Italy had a historical mission, advocating for a 'Third Rome' of the people. While his ideas mobilized many, early attempts at insurrection in the 1830s and the Bandiera Brothers' expedition in 1844 failed, leading to growing criticism of his methods and the emergence of more moderate alternatives.
Following the failures of Mazzinian insurrections, new moderate and reformist ideas gained traction. Carlo Cattaneo proposed a federal republic, similar to the United States or Switzerland, to preserve regional peculiarities. Giuseppe Ferrari advocated for a social revolution supported by an external power like France. Liberal moderates, including Catholic figures like Alessandro Manzoni and Vincenzo Gioberti (proponent of Neo-Guelphism, suggesting a confederation of Italian states under papal presidency), focused on internal reforms, customs unions, and promoting culture and science. Cesare Balbo and Massimo D'Azeglio supported a monarchical federalist approach, with the King of Sardinia leading a unified North and gradually pushing Austrian influence eastward. These ideas laid the groundwork for a gradual, top-down approach to unification.
Mid-19th century Italy suffered from economic backwardness, with most of the population engaged in unproductive agriculture, minimal industrialization, and a fragmented internal market hindering development. Poor living conditions led to widespread disease and low life expectancy. Despite this, a reform process began in 1846 with the election of Pope Pius IX. His liberal reforms, including amnesty for political prisoners, limited censorship, and the creation of a State Consulta, garnered widespread support and sparked patriotic demonstrations. Austrian intervention in the Papal States further solidified Pius IX's popular image. Tuscany and Piedmont followed suit with reforms, and a customs league was proposed, but staunch opposition from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and Austrian resistance created further divisions.
The year 1848 saw revolutions across Europe, inspiring insurrections in Italy. A separatist revolt in Palermo (January), followed by uprisings in Milan (Five Days of Milan) and Venice, led to the granting of constitutions across many Italian states, including the Statuto Albertino in Piedmont. Faced with popular pressure, King Charles Albert of Sardinia declared war on Austria, initiating the First War of Independence. Other Italian states initially sent troops, but Pope Pius IX, fearing a schism with Catholic Austria, withdrew his support, followed by Naples and Tuscany. The Piedmontese army, despite early successes, was decisively defeated by Austrian forces at Custoza (July 1848). This defeat led to an armistice and the reoccupation of Lombardy by Austria, exposing the internal divisions and strategic weaknesses of the Italian forces, and forcing Charles Albert to abdicate in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II.
Despite the Piedmontese defeat, democratic uprisings continued. The Roman Republic was proclaimed in February 1849 after Pope Pius IX fled, led by Mazzini, Armellini, and Saffi. A Tuscan Republic also emerged. These republics implemented progressive reforms but faced overwhelming foreign intervention. France, Spain, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and Austria responded to Pius IX's appeal, crushing the Roman Republic (July 1849) and ultimately the Venetian Republic (August 1849). The suppression led to widespread repression and exiles for patriots. However, the Kingdom of Sardinia under Victor Emmanuel II, having maintained the Statuto Albertino, emerged as the sole constitutional state in Italy, becoming a beacon for future unification efforts.
The period after 1848 saw the rise of Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, as a leading figure in Piedmontese politics. As Prime Minister from 1852, Cavour implemented an ambitious program of modernization, strengthening the economy through liberalized trade, infrastructure development (railways, ports), and state-supported industrial growth. He formed a broad centrist coalition, the 'Connubio', to stabilize political power. His reforms also aimed at secularizing the state, notably through the Siccardi Laws that curtailed Church privileges. Cavour's vision for unification emphasized diplomatic solutions and expanding the Kingdom of Sardinia at Austria's expense. Piedmont attracted thousands of political refugees, becoming the intellectual and political center for a unified Italy.
Cavour sought to end Piedmont's diplomatic isolation. His participation in the Crimean War (1854-1856) gained international recognition and a seat at the Congress of Paris, where he highlighted Italian instability. The Orsini assassination attempt on Napoleon III in 1858 further cemented French interest in resolving the Italian question. The secret Plombières Agreement (1858) outlined a Franco-Sardinian alliance against Austria: Italy would be divided into three states under a papal confederation, with France gaining Nice and Savoy. Cavour strategically provoked Austria with military preparations, prompting an ultimatum that Austria issued in April 1859, triggering the Second War of Italian Independence.