Summary
Highlights
The lecture begins by framing 1848 as a pivotal European and global event, a time of rapid change and upheaval. The phrase 'è successo un quarantotto' (a 1848 happened) became proverbial, reflecting the extraordinary nature of the year. The initial spark came from Sicily, where deep-seated dissatisfaction with Bourbon rule led to an insurrection on January 12, 1848. This Sicilian uprising, driven by a desire for a separate kingdom and local governance, marked the beginning of a wave of revolutions across Europe.
The desire for a constitution, guaranteeing political rights and an end to absolute monarchies, was a key theme across Italy. Ferdinand II of Naples initially conceded a constitution. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany followed suit without major unrest. This period also saw the emergence of new ideologies, with the publication of Marx's Communist Manifesto on February 21, 1848, signaling the rise of the proletarian revolution alongside the bourgeois demand for constitutional liberalism. Even France, which had a liberal monarchy, erupted in revolution on February 22, leading to the establishment of a republic and universal male suffrage.
The revolutionary fervor quickly spread. Charles Albert of Sardinia, initially hesitant, granted the 'Statuto Albertino' on March 4. In the Austrian Empire, Vienna revolted on March 13, leading to the flight of Prince Metternich, a symbol of conservative rule. Budapest rose on March 15, demanding autonomy or independence, highlighting the nationalist dimension of these uprisings. Venice and Milan followed, with Milan's 'Five Days' (March 18-22) being particularly brutal, resulting in thousands of casualties and the retreat of Austrian forces under Radetzky.
On March 23, Charles Albert declared war on Austria, initiating the First Italian War of Independence. Despite the numerical superiority of the Austrian Empire, the turmoil across its domains offered an opportunity. Initially, other Italian states, including Tuscany, Naples, and the Papal States, pledged support. However, Charles Albert's hesitant leadership and the Piedmontese army's slow advance allowed Radetzky to regroup in the Quadrilateral fortresses. The Piedmontese army, a mix of career soldiers and ill-trained conscripts, lacked efficient command, light cavalry, and detailed maps, leading to missed opportunities.
The Piedmontese captured bridges over the Mincio River in early April but then stalled. The local populations in the Venetian region were less enthusiastic, and Austrian propaganda effectively portrayed the Italian movement as an aristocratic plot against the common people. Attempts to incite an insurrection in Mantua failed. Charles Albert shifted his focus to besieging Peschiera, a decision criticized for diverting forces from engaging the main Austrian army. Meanwhile, Austrian General Nugent began marching an army from Gorizia to reinforce Radetzky, recapturing Udine on April 22.
On April 30, the Piedmontese achieved a minor victory at Pastrengo, but their casualties were minimal, indicating a lack of decisive engagement. A more significant setback occurred on May 6 at Santa Lucia, near Verona, where Austrian forces repelled a poorly executed Piedmontese attack. Politically, the coalition began to unravel. Pope Pius IX, on April 29, withdrew his troops, declaring he could not wage war against another Catholic sovereign. Ferdinand II of Naples also recalled his forces after a parliamentary crisis on May 15, exposing the fragility of the Italian alliance.
With Nugent's reinforcements, Radetzky felt strong enough to go on the offensive. On May 27, he launched a swift advance, targeting the southern flank of the extended Piedmontese lines. On May 29, at Curtatone and Montanara, he attacked the Tuscan and Neapolitan divisions, which included student volunteers from Pisa. Despite heroic resistance, the Italian forces were overwhelmed and routed, leaving the Piedmontese flank exposed. This costly delay, however, allowed Charles Albert to reposition his troops.
On May 30, Radetzky attacked the Piedmontese at Goito, hoping to deliver a decisive blow. The Piedmontese managed to hold their ground, and Radetzky's forces, suffering relatively low casualties, retreated. The battle was considered a Piedmontese victory, significantly boosting morale. The very next day, Peschiera, which had been under siege, surrendered. Charles Albert entered the fortress to cheers, and news arrived that Vienna itself was in turmoil again, with the Emperor fleeing the capital. This seemed to signal a turning tide for the Italian cause.
Despite these successes, Charles Albert remained hesitant, delaying further action. Radetzky, sensing the Piedmontese inaction, moved to attack General Durando's Papal forces in Veneto. Durando, despite promising to resist, was swiftly defeated at Vicenza on June 10, signing an armistice that withdrew his troops south of the Po. This victory allowed Radetzky to consolidate Austrian control over Veneto, ending the Venetian Republic's brief independence and strengthening his position with continuous reinforcements.
The lack of decisive action by Charles Albert led to the decay of his army, plagued by disease, lack of supplies, and low morale. Efforts to raise a Lombard army were chaotic and ineffective. The arrival of Giuseppe Garibaldi, a celebrated Republican, was rejected by Charles Albert, who distrusted his republican leanings. Finally, on July 22, Radetzky launched his main offensive, attacking the Piedmontese at Custoza on July 24-25. Though casualties were not excessively high by Napoleonic standards, the Piedmontese army was decisively defeated, forcing a rapid retreat.
Radetzky's forces crossed the Mincio and then the Adda, driving the Piedmontese out of Lombardy. Charles Albert, refusing to accept an armistice that would have saved Milan, attempted a final, desperate defense of the city. However, his army was exhausted, and the Milanese population was unsure whether to support him or revolt against him. On August 4, after a brief and indecisive engagement, Charles Albert requested an armistice, retreating his army across the Ticino. The Armistice of Salasco was signed on August 9, ending the First Italian War of Independence after four and a half months.
The end of the Italian revolution mirrored the broader repression of the 1848 uprisings across Europe. In Paris, a new workers' insurrection in June was brutally crushed. In Sicily, Ferdinand II reconquered the island, earning the nickname 'King Bomba' for his bombardment of Messina. In the Papal States, Pius IX fled Rome in November, leading to the proclamation of the Roman Republic in 1849. In France, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I, was elected president, soon to become emperor. The year concluded with the celebration of Radetzky's victories, symbolized by Strauss's 'Radetzky March,' marking the definitive end of the 'Spring of Nations.'