AP EURO: THE ENTIRE COURSE IN 33 MINUTES

This period begins with Western Europe's recovery after the fall of the Roman Empire, unified by Catholicism. The Crusades spurred the Renaissance, a rebirth of humanist thought, classical learning, secularism, and individual achievement. Key figures include Petrarch and Machiavelli. The Northern Renaissance, exemplified by Erasmus, focused on Christian humanism. The printing press fueled the spread of knowledge and vernacular languages, challenging the Catholic Church's power. Exploration began with navigational technologies, leading to Columbus's journey and the Columbian Exchange, which brought new foods to Europe but disastrous impacts on Africa and the Americas through the transatlantic slave trade. Mercantilism and the cottage industry emerged, along with new financial institutions like the Bank of Amsterdam. Economic power shifted from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, and serfdom was codified in the East. The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther, fragmented religious unity, leading to religious wars like the Thirty Years' War, eventually resolved by the Peace of Westphalia. The Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits, Baroque art). Debates about women's roles and moral regulation also arose.

This period saw European political institutions transform. The English Civil War challenged monarchical absolutism, leading to the execution of Charles I and eventually the Glorious Revolution, which established parliamentary power and the English Bill of Rights. The Dutch Republic became an economically prosperous oligarchy, reflected in its art. Conflicts shifted from religion to maintaining a balance of power among European states, funded by colonial wealth and leading to stronger armies and advanced military technologies. Russia, under Peter the Great, embraced Westernization to compete with other European powers. The Scientific Revolution (17th century) saw figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Harvey, Bacon, and Descartes challenge traditional views with new theories and methods, although some still believed in spiritual forces. The Enlightenment (18th century) applied scientific methods to human society, with philosophers like Locke, Hobbes, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau debating natural rights, government, and education. Women like Mary Wollstonecraft advocated for their rights, and salons became centers for discussion. New economic ideas from physiocrats and Adam Smith challenged mercantilism. Deism and atheism rose, accompanied by a general rise in religious toleration. Enlightened absolutists like Joseph II and Frederick II adopted some of these ideas. Wars like the Seven Years' War reshaped global power dynamics, leading to the American and French Revolutions. The French Revolution radicalized, leading to the Reign of Terror, conservative reactions, and the Haitian Revolution. Napoleon rose to power, bringing civil codes and nationalism to conquered lands. The Congress of Vienna (1815) aimed to restore the balance of power after Napoleon's defeat.

Britain led the Industrial Revolution (early 19th century) due to resources and government support, starting with textiles. Industrialization spread but lagged in Eastern Europe due to serfdom. A second wave brought innovations like the Bessemer process and electricity, facilitated by new transportation. Industrialization initially caused poor working conditions, but reforms, public health measures, and compulsory education improved urban life. Labor unions and political parties for workers emerged, leading to disposable income and consumerism. Industrialization created a new social hierarchy. Political and intellectual movements arose in response: liberalism (John Stuart Mill), radicalism (Chartists), feminism (Emmeline Pankhurst), socialism (Marx and Engels' Communist Manifesto), and anarchism. Art movements like Romanticism (response to Enlightenment rationalism and industrial impact) and Realism (addressing social problems) reflected these changes. Revolutions of 1848 swept Europe, fighting against serfdom, monarchy, and for independence and nationalism. German and Italian unification occurred through figures like Bismarck and Garibaldi. Austria-Hungary formed a dual monarchy. Zionism emerged in response to antisemitism. The Crimean War led to Russian modernization. Social Darwinism and new racial theories justified imperialism, leading to European colonization of Africa and Asia, notably at the Berlin Conference of 1884. Resistance movements, like the Sepoy and Boxer Rebellions, emerged. The late 1800s saw a rise in irrationality and relativism, an 'Age of Anxiety,' reflected in modern art and scientific developments like Einstein's theory of relativity.

European tensions culminated in World War I (1914), fueled by militarism, imperialism, nationalism, and alliances. Industrialized warfare led to unprecedented death, trench warfare, and new technologies. The Russian Revolution (1917) under Lenin and the Bolsheviks led to the formation of the USSR. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) blamed Germany, causing economic hardship exacerbated by the Great Depression, leading to the rise of extremist fascist dictatorships in Germany and Italy. Western powers' appeasement allowed Hitler and Mussolini to expand. Authoritarianism also rose in the East under Stalin, with disastrous collectivization and five-year plans. The Nazis enacted the Nuremberg Laws and initiated the Holocaust, targeting Jews and other groups. World War II began in 1939 with Hitler's invasion of Poland, ending in 1945. The wars led to a 'Lost Generation' marked by cynicism, but also transformed women's roles, with increased economic, political, and social rights (Simone de Beauvoir, birth control pill). The Cold War (post-WWII) was an ideological struggle between capitalism/democracy (West) and totalitarianism/communism (East). The U.S. implemented the Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine to contain communism. NATO and the Warsaw Pact formed. Khrushchev's de-Stalinization brought some change, but Eastern Bloc countries faced restrictions. Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika led to the fall of the USSR in 1991, causing political restructuring in Europe. Western Europe adopted social welfare policies. Nationalism continued, leading to conflicts like the Bosnian genocide and IRA, and decolonization movements globally. Migration from former colonies led to anti-immigration sentiments. The Catholic Church reformed with Vatican II. Social groups fought for civil rights. European countries integrated through organizations like the European Coal and Steel Community, leading to the European Union. Green parties emerged, challenging consumerism and advocating for sustainable development. The EU faces ongoing challenges regarding sovereignty, immigration, and national identity.