Summary
Highlights
This history lesson for 8th graders will continue the discussion on the formation of national states, specifically focusing on the unification of Italy. The lesson will cover the role of historical figures, the identification of historical terms, the explanation of causes and processes, and the characterization of factors determining national consciousness.
Key dates include 1859 (Franco-Austrian War), 1860 (Garibaldi's expedition), 1861 (Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II), and 1871 (Rome becomes the capital). Important concepts are political fragmentation, political unification, political current, nation, plebiscite, and constitutional monarchy. Historically, Italian states began the 'Risorgimento' unification movement in 1815, but initial attempts in 1830 and 1848 failed due to Austrian intervention.
By the mid-19th century, Italy remained fragmented, but national unification was vital for economic, social, political, and cultural progress. Unification could occur either from above (led by a strong state like Piedmont) or from below (through popular revolutionary movements). The second half of the 19th century presented favorable internal and external conditions. Externally, national unity was a desire across European nations. France supported Piedmont against Austrian domination. Internally, two political currents emerged: the democratic republican current led by Giuseppe Mazzini advocating for liberation movements, and the liberal current led by Camillo Cavour supporting unification under the Savoy dynasty. Economic evolution, marked by industrial growth and infrastructure development, also favored unification.
The unification process unfolded in several stages. In the first stage, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia allied with France and fought against Austria. Despite Austrian defeat, Napoleon III's fear of extended warfare led to an armistice in 1859, where only Lombardy was annexed to Piedmont, and Venetia remained under Austrian control. Discontent with the French actions fueled the desire for unification in other regions. In 1860, Parma, Modena, and Tuscany voted through plebiscites to join the Kingdom of Sardinia, primarily consolidating unification in the northern regions of the peninsula.
In the same year (1860), favorable conditions arose in the south. A popular revolt erupted in Palermo, Sicily, which gained momentum under Giuseppe Garibaldi's leadership and spread throughout the Kingdom of Naples. Garibaldi became a popular hero, implementing measures to improve the lives of peasants. King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont sent military forces and organized a plebiscite. The Sardinian army achieved significant victories, and the people voted for the union of the Kingdom of Naples with Piedmont. Garibaldi's actions in 1860, known as the Expedition of the Thousand Red Shirts, culminated in the formation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, with Florence as its capital and Victor Emmanuel II crowned as King by the first National Parliament.
The unification process continued. In 1866, Venetia was liberated from Austrian rule following Austria's defeat in the war with Prussia (which Italy supported) and joined the Kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi's followers attempted to liberate Rome but were defeated. However, in 1870, Rome was liberated after France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (as Prussia was also undergoing its own unification). In 1871, Rome officially became the capital of the Italian state, marking the successful completion of the unification process.
Key leaders of Italian unification include Giuseppe Mazzini, Camillo Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II, and Giuseppe Garibaldi. Mazzini emphasized that Italy must rise from end to end, with liberty and national independence as its core cry. Cavour, an advocate of constitutional monarchy, believed it was the only system capable of reconciling order with liberty, stability with progress. Victor Emmanuel II, proclaimed King in 1861, completed Italian unity while preserving the liberal constitution inherited from Piedmont. Garibaldi, appealing to supporters, proclaimed that they would bring a legion of heroes and only sought the liberation of their land, urging all to arms for unification and liberation.
The success of creating a unified Italian state was due to several favorable factors: Italians capitalizing on conflicts between foreign oppressors, the struggle of democratic forces led by talented individuals like Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi, and the weakness and isolation of the conservative nobility within Italian society. The unification of Italy was a complex and lengthy historical process, occurring between 1859 and 1871, combining diplomatic and military actions, and integrating top-down leadership from Piedmont with bottom-up revolutionary movements led by Garibaldi. The Kingdom of Italy became the historical form of the unified Italian national state, aiming for affirmation and progress. The Vatican remained an independent enclave within Italy.