History of Spain - Documentary

The Black Death devastated the Iberian kingdoms. Alfonso XI's son, Peter 'the Cruel,' faced a civil war against his illegitimate half-brother Henry of Trastámara, leading to the War of the Two Pedros with Aragon. This conflict was intertwined with the Hundred Years' War, with Castile aligning with England and Aragon with France. Peter was eventually killed by Henry in 1369, making Henry II the new king. Dynastic disputes continued, notably with Portugal in the Fernandine Wars. John I of Castile attempted to claim the Portuguese throne through marriage, but was defeated. His son, Henry III, proved to be an efficient ruler, bolstering the Castilian navy and reducing violence against Jews. He died young, leaving his one-year-old son John II on the throne. The 15th century was a period of great change, leading to the eventual marriage of Isabella, John II's daughter, and Ferdinand II, King of Aragon. This union would create the Kingdom of Spain, completing the Reconquista and launching Spain into an era of global expansion.

Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D., chaos engulfed the West. The Iberian Peninsula, or Hispania, was dominated by Germanic warlords. Prior to Roman rule, the region was inhabited by Iberians, Basques, and Celts. Roman conquest of Iberia was complete by 19 BC, leading to heavy Romanization. By the 5th century A.D., Germanic invaders—Swabi, Allens, Vandals, and Visigoths—overran Iberia. The Visigoths, in alliance with the Romans, eventually established their kingdom, extending across much of Hispania by 472 A.D. Despite this, the region remained Roman in culture and language, with the Visigoths considering themselves heirs to Roman Hispania. The Visigoths, though romanized, maintained separate legal codes for themselves and the Hispano-Romans, and prohibited intermarriage.

Visigothic rule was unstable, facing threats from the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and the Franks. Alaric II, King of the Visigoths, was defeated and killed by the Franks under Clovis in 507, leading to a loss of territory and the Visigothic capital moving to Toledo. A period of instability and civil wars followed. In 549, the Byzantine Emperor Justinian the Great invaded Hispania, reclaiming significant portions of the southeast. Though the Byzantines would eventually be ousted by 624, their presence further destabilized the Visigothic kingdom. The conversion of the Visigothic kingdom to Catholicism under King Reccared eventually helped unify them with the Hispano-Romans, blurring the distinctions between the two groups. The Lex Visigothorum, a unified legal code, further solidified this new 'ispani' identity, though internal instability persisted.

In the 7th century, Islam emerged in the Middle East, leading to rapid Arab expansion. By 700 A.D., the Umayyad Caliphate stretched to Morocco, just a strait away from the weakened Visigothic kingdom. In 711 A.D., a Muslim force, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, invaded Iberia. They decisively defeated King Roderick at the Battle of Guadalete, leading to the rapid collapse of the Visigothic kingdom. Iberia became Al-Andalus, under Islamic rule for nearly 800 years. Many of the native Iberians converted to Islam, becoming 'Muladies,' though Christians ('Mozarabs') and Jews were tolerated as 'Dhimmis' under stricter laws. The Muslims brought new science, technology, and classical knowledge, but also expanded slavery. Some Christians retreated to the mountainous north, forming the Kingdom of Asturias, initiating the Reconquista after a victory at the Battle of Covadonga under Pelagius.

The Umayyad Caliphate's control over Al-Andalus weakened due to Berber revolts in North Africa and internal conflicts. In 756, Abd al-Rahman, an Umayyad prince, established the independent Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba. This period saw temporary alliances between Christian kingdoms and the Abbasids against the Emirate, notably Charlemagne's invasion in 778. The Christian kingdoms in the north, including Asturias and the newly formed Kingdom of Pamplona (later Navarre), slowly expanded. In the 9th century, Viking raids on the Iberian coasts were largely repelled by both Muslim and Christian forces. Ordono I and Alfonso III 'the Great' of Asturias fought successfully against the Moors and Basques, strengthening the Christian identity and expanding their territory. Alfonso III's kingdom, however, was divided among his sons upon his death.

By 924, the Christian kingdoms were reunified under the Kingdom of Leon. Major changes occurred in Al-Andalus with Abd al-Rahman III becoming Khalif in 929, challenging the sole authority of the Abbasid Caliph and ushering in a golden age for Al-Andalus. Despite this, Leon's Ramiro II 'the Devil' achieved significant victories against the Caliphate. The County of Castile emerged as a semi-autonomous entity, paving the way for future power shifts. In the late 10th century, Al-Mansour, a regent, effectively controlled the Caliphate and launched devastating campaigns against the northern Christian kingdoms. However, after Al-Mansour's death in 1002, the Caliphate fragmented into numerous 'taifas' (factions) by 1031 due to internal strife, weakening Islamic rule.

The fragmentation of Al-Andalus allowed Christian kingdoms to become dominant. Sancho III 'the Great' of Pamplona briefly unified much of Christian Iberia before dividing his kingdom among his sons in 1035, leading to the rise of Castile and Aragon. Ferdinand I unified Castile and Leon, demanding 'parias' (tributes) from the taifas. His death in 1065 led to further fragmentation and civil war among his sons. Alfonso VI eventually reunited the kingdoms and, in 1085, captured Toledo, making the Christian threat to the taifas undeniable. The taifas, in desperation, invited the Almoravids, a strict Berber dynasty from Morocco, to defend them. In 1086, the Almoravids crushed the Christians at the Battle of Sagrajas. Though initially a truce, the Almoravids soon began to depose taifa rulers, placing Al-Andalus under direct, harsh Almoravid rule.

Christian leadership, such as El Cid, resisted the Almoravids, but key cities like Valencia fell. Internal conflicts plagued the Christian kingdoms; for example, the tumultuous marriage and subsequent annulment of Urraca of Castile-Leon and Alfonso I 'the Battler' of Aragon and Navarre. The Crown of Aragon was formed in 1137 through a dynastic marriage, uniting Aragon and Catalonia. In the west, Portugal gained independence from Leon after the Battle of Valdevez in 1141. The Almoravids' harsh rule and internal problems led to their decline, and a new Berber dynasty, the Almohads, conquered Morocco and then Al-Andalus by 1173. The Almohads were even more religiously devout, leading to severe persecution of Christians and Jews. The divided Christian kingdoms initially struggled against this new, powerful Islamic force, leading to a major Almohad victory at the Battle of Alarcos in 1195.

Christian disunity after Alarcos led some, like King Alfonso IX of Leon, to ally with the Almohads against fellow Christians. However, facing a unified Almohad invasion in 1211, Pope Innocent III called for a Crusade. The united Christian armies of Iberia, joined by Templars and other Crusaders, decisively defeated the Almohads at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. This battle marked the turning point of the Reconquista. After this, Almohad rule rapidly collapsed, leading to the re-emergence of taifas, which were quickly overwhelmed by Christian advances. Ferdinand III, King of Castile and Leon, played a crucial role, capturing Cordoba and Seville. By 1248, Moorish presence in Iberia was largely confined to the Emirate of Granada, which became a tributary state to Castile.

Ferdinand III's son, Alfonso X 'the Wise,' continued to focus on the Muslims, but also faced internal rebellions and challenges. The Marinids, a new Moroccan dynasty, reinforced Granada in its conflicts with Castile. Alfonso X's reign was characterized by intellectual pursuits and legal reforms, though also by economic struggles and civil war. His son Sancho IV 'the Brave' dealt with rebellious nobles and took parts of the Strait of Gibraltar. Subsequent kings, like Ferdinand IV and Alfonso XI, faced succession crises and ongoing conflicts with Granada and the Marinids. Alfonso XI, 'the Avenger,' decisively defeated a combined Marinid-Grenadian force at the Battle of Rio Salado in 1340, ending Moroccan interference in Iberia. He then besieged Granada, but the arrival of the Black Death in 1349, which tragically claimed his life, forced the siege to be lifted.