INDEPENDENCIA de MÉXICO y de CENTROAMÉRICA 🌎 Miguel Hidalgo e Iturbide 🌍 Independencias América 2

The 19th century began in New Spain with Félix Berenguer de Marquina as Viceroy amidst British attacks, American expansion, and the cession of Louisiana to France, then the U.S. Liberal ideologies, such as popular sovereignty and equality, started to spread among the Creole and bourgeois classes through publications like the 'Diario de México'. Intellectual figures like Francisco Javier Clavijero contributed to this intellectual awakening, which was fueled by the Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808 and the subsequent installation of Joseph Bonaparte as king. This led to a power vacuum and the formation of autonomous 'juntas' in both Spain and America, with the aim of restoring Ferdinand VII. The Junta of Mexico, dominated by Creoles, sought self-governance and introduced liberal reforms, sparking opposition from loyalists.

On September 16, 1810, two days after Viceroy Francisco Javier Venegas took office, Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla initiated the War of Independence with the 'Grito de Dolores.' Hidalgo called for rebellion against the viceregal government, rallying his followers in a region facing economic crisis. Early supporters included Ignacio Allende and Juan Aldama. The exact words of the 'Grito' are debated, but it likely expressed support for Ferdinand VII and the rejection of French rule, appealing to the widespread desire to protect Christianity against Napoleonic ideas. Hidalgo's movement quickly gained popular support, but also led to uncontrolled looting and massacres, alienating the Creole middle and upper classes. Despite these issues, Hidalgo abolished slavery and indigenous tributes and established 'El Despertador Americano', a newspaper promoting his ideals. After victories, Hidalgo decided not to attack Mexico City, a decision that weakened his movement and his relationship with Allende, prolonging the war.

After Hidalgo's execution in 1811, new rebel leaders emerged, including Ignacio López Rayón, who organized the Junta de Zitácuaro and founded 'El Ilustrador Americano' to spread autonomist ideas. José María Morelos, another priest, became a prominent figure in the South, achieving victories like the Battle of Tenancingo and the capture of Cuautla. Morelos resisted a three-month siege by realist forces and later captured Oaxaca, establishing an autonomous government and publishing 'Correo Americano del Sur'. Meanwhile, in Spain, the Cortes of Cadiz promulgated the liberal Constitution of 1812, which advocated for national sovereignty, separation of powers, and freedom of the press. This constitution offered Creoles in America new opportunities, but was resisted by the existing Spanish oligarchy and an absolutist Viceroy Venegas, who suppressed its ideals and freedom of the press. Félix Calleja replaced Venegas as Viceroy, with hopes for a more liberal policy while still defeating the insurgents.

Viceroy Félix Calleja reorganized the government and military, but Ferdinand VII's return to power in Spain brought an end to the liberal constitution and a return to absolutism. This further alienated liberal Creoles. New campaigns by rebel forces continued, with Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara and Augustus Magee leading the Republican Army of the North. Morelos achieved more successes, such as the capture of Acapulco and the organization of the Congress of Chilpancingo, which declared the independence of southern Mexico and abolished slavery. A constitution based on the Cadiz Constitution was proclaimed in Apatzingán, aimed at attracting disaffected liberal Creoles. However, Morelos suffered significant defeats against Agustín de Iturbide and was eventually captured and executed in 1815. Despite this, isolated rebel strongholds remained, led by figures like Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria. Viceroy Juan José Ruiz de Apodaca adopted a more conciliatory approach, offering pardons to insurgents, which led many to lay down arms. The arrival of Francisco Javier Mina in 1817 reignited the revolution briefly, but he too was captured and executed.

The liberal revolution in Spain in 1820, which forced Ferdinand VII to accept the Cadiz Constitution, transformed viceroyalties into constitutional provinces. Viceroy Apodaca (now 'Superior Political Chief') and many absolutist monarchists, fearing the liberal reforms, conspired in the 'Conspiracy of the Professa' to protect the Bourbon monarchy, even if it meant independence. Agustín de Iturbide, initially sent to quell the rebellion, instead joined forces with Vicente Guerrero in the 'Embrace of Acatempan'. This alliance led to the creation of the Plan of Iguala, which declared New Spain an independent, constitutional monarchy with Ferdinand VII or another Spanish prince as emperor. The plan established three guarantees: Catholicism, Independence, and Unity, forming the 'Ejército Trigarante'. Apodaca's resistance to the plan led to his deposition. The new political chief, Juan O'Donojú, recognized Iturbide's widespread support and signed the Treaties of Córdoba on August 24, 1821, formally recognizing New Spain's independence. On September 27, 1821, Iturbide entered Mexico City victoriously, and the Act of Independence of the Mexican Empire was signed the following day. Iturbide became Emperor Agustín I, marking the beginning of the First Mexican Empire.

Central America, then known as the Captaincy General of Guatemala, also saw independence movements. Early conspiracies in El Salvador and Guatemala between 1811 and 1814 faced repression. In 1820, with the reinstatement of the Cadiz Constitution, press freedom led to publications like 'El Editor Constitucional' by Pedro Molina Mazariegos, critical of the viceregal government. Following Mexico's independence, Central America declared its own independence on September 15, 1821, peacefully. They briefly joined the Mexican Empire but, after its collapse in 1823, formed the United Provinces of Central America, which eventually dissolved into individual nations after a civil war in 1838. Spain retained only the Philippines, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam. The independent Mexican Empire adopted the eagle and serpent symbol from the Mexica (Aztec) past, a common practice among independence leaders to appeal to indigenous populations and create a distinct identity from Europe. Figures like Francisco Javier Clavijero idealized the pre-Hispanic past, drawing parallels to classical civilizations. However, this idealization often contrasted with later actions of independent republics, which engaged in conflicts with indigenous groups, leading to identity issues and regional tensions, as seen with Yucatán's attempts to secede from Mexico during Santa Anna's rule.