Summary
Highlights
Carthage was founded around 800 BC by Phoenicians from the city of Tyre. Strategically located, it grew into a powerful city-state. Power was held by nobles who owned land and resources. A king managed religious and military functions, while non-noble citizens participated through a popular assembly electing 'Sufeten'. Though Roman sources alleged child sacrifices, archaeological evidence remains inconclusive.
By the 5th century BC, Carthage dominated the western Mediterranean, controlling trade and securing it from pirates. They established colonies in Sardinia and Corsica for food and resources, and explored the Atlantic, trading in West Africa. When faced with resistance, Carthage expanded militarily, notably in Spain, demanding tributes and political alignment from conquered peoples. This expansion led to conflicts with the Greeks, especially in Sicily, a constant hotspot for both powers.
While Carthage expanded, Rome grew on the Italian mainland. Initially, Carthage and Rome maintained good relations, signing treaties and assisting each other. However, a minor conflict at the Strait of Messina escalated when Rome intervened, leading to the First Punic War (264-241 BC). Carthage, strong at sea, used its fleet to control waters and raid Italian coasts. Rome, lacking naval experience, developed boarding bridges (Corvi) for their infantry. The prolonged war favored Rome due to its efficient system of alliances providing troops, whereas Carthage relied heavily on expensive mercenaries. After 20 years, Carthage ran out of funds, seeking peace and surrendering Sicily, paying heavy indemnities, and abandoning navigation in Italian waters.
After the First Punic War, Carthage faced internal revolts from unpaid mercenaries and lost control of Corsica and Sardinia to Rome. To rebuild, Carthage focused on the Iberian Peninsula, rich in silver. General Hamilcar Barca conquered much of the peninsula. After his death, his son Hannibal, a young and ambitious general, took command. Hannibal sought revenge for the First Punic War defeat, provoking Rome into declaring the Second Punic War in 218 BC.
Hannibal undertook his famous maneuver, crossing the Alps with 50,000 soldiers, 10,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants, surprising the Romans. Despite heavy losses during the crossing, his experienced army reached Italy. Hannibal inflicted numerous defeats on the Romans, including the devastating Battle of Cannae, where 50,000 Roman soldiers died. However, Hannibal failed to besiege Rome due to its strong defenses and his lack of resources for a long siege. The Romans' well-organized state, strong population growth, and alliances with other Italian tribes allowed them to continuously raise new armies. Hannibal's attempts to turn Roman allies against them largely failed.
Rome retaliated under young general Scipio, who first drove the Carthaginians out of Spain, then advanced to North Africa, threatening Carthage's homeland. Hannibal was recalled to defend Carthage. In 202 BC, Hannibal was decisively defeated by Scipio at the Battle of Zama in North Africa. Carthage was forced into an even harsher peace treaty, losing external political autonomy and military independence. Rome further weakened Carthage by fostering the Numidian king Massinissa as a strong neighbor.
Despite its weakened status, Hannibal, as a government official, successfully rebuilt Carthage economically. However, Massinissa continued to encroach on Carthaginian territory. When Carthage raised an army to defend itself, Rome used this as a pretext for war. In 149 BC, Rome attacked Carthage, motivated by deep-seated fear and resentment (famously expressed by Cato the Elder: "Carthage must be destroyed"). After a three-year siege, Carthage fell in 146 BC. The city was destroyed, and its surviving inhabitants were enslaved. Roughly a century later, Julius Caesar decided to refound Carthage as a Roman city. Emperor Augustus established Colonia Iulia Concordia Carthago, which grew into the Roman Empire's fourth-largest city. This Roman Carthage was also eventually conquered and destroyed by the Arabs in 698 AD.