Summary
Highlights
Initially, human life was nomadic, characterized by constant movement in search of food. Around 10,000 years ago, domestication of animals like dogs, sheep, and goats began, providing protection, wool, and portable protein (cheese). The transition to agriculture started with the accidental discovery and observation of seeds growing, leading to early farming, initially alongside hunting and gathering. Eventually, people had to choose to invest fully in farming due to its higher productivity per acre, offering food security, surplus, and the beginnings of trade and wealth.
Settled life introduced individualism, replacing the communal system of nomadic groups. Ownership of land and food became personal, leading to individual wealth and possessions. However, settled peoples faced new problems: vulnerability to nomads due to their fixed location, reliance on unpredictable nature, and conflicts with other settled groups. These challenges necessitated cooperation and interdependence, demonstrating that complete libertarianism was not a viable concept in the ancient world as people still needed protection and assistance from their community.
The primary solution to nomadic threats was building walls to protect valuable assets and people. This led to the inadvertent creation of cities, which housed palaces, temples, merchants, governments, and wealth. This development created a divide between the urban rich, who did not farm, and the rural poor, who engaged in strenuous agricultural labor. Cities became centers of wealth, trade, and education, representing a significant shift from the previous societal structure.
To cope with the unpredictable forces of nature, settled peoples developed polytheistic religions. Gods represented various aspects of nature (sun, river, rain, insects) and had human-like qualities, allowing for negotiation, sacrifice, and the belief in some level of control over the elements. This fostered community among people as everyone participated in religious rituals and celebrations. However, disadvantages included the expense of sacrifices, the capricious nature of human-like gods, the lack of privacy, and the risk of angering one of many deities.
The collective societal problems, such as building infrastructure and maintaining religious practices, led to the need for a centralized authority. Kings emerged as super-rich individuals with legitimacy—the ability to make others accept their right to command. Kings collected taxes, organized labor for public works like walls, enforced laws, and commanded armies. Without a king, societies were vulnerable to external threats and internal strife, highlighting the crucial role of established government for survival and success.
In Mesopotamia, settled communities thrived, leading to the growth of small towns into cities of around 5,000 people, and eventually larger cities like Ur and Uruk with populations of 25,000. This success spurred expansion, with people moving up the Tigris and Euphrates rivers into frontier areas seeking new land and less established government. This migration led to the formation of new settled areas, new towns, and the continuous cycle of government establishment, marking the growth of Mesopotamian culture and settlement.
The Epic of Gilgamesh is Mesopotamia's most popular story, serving as a common cultural touchstone. It explores themes of good kingship by depicting Gilgamesh's transformation from a bad ruler, the ambiguous nature of cities and civilization, and humanity's quest for immortality. Written by humans, it was the first 'blockbuster' story. Gilgamesh's journey with his friend Enkidu, their adventures, and Enkidu's death lead Gilgamesh to grapple with mortality and the meaning of life. Ultimately, he finds meaning in being remembered through great deeds and through one's children, ensuring an enduring legacy. These profound questions continue to resonate with humanity across millennia.