Summary
Highlights
In November 1519, Cortés and his allies entered Tenochtitlan, a city comparable in scale to major European capitals. Moctezuma welcomed Cortés, but Cortés interpreted this and Moctezuma's polite speeches as a formal submission. After being lavished with gifts, Cortés took Moctezuma hostage, effectively ruling the empire through him. This act crushed Moctezuma, whose sacred space and authority were violated.
In 1519, the powerful city of Tenochtitlan was a hub of the Aztec Empire. Moctezuma, the Aztec ruler, was concerned by omens and reports of strange, pale, bearded men from the coast, which aligned with prophecies of an apocalyptic time. The Aztecs, unfamiliar with seafaring, had little knowledge of the Spanish presence in the Caribbean.
Hernán Cortés, a 34-year-old mine owner, was chosen by the Deputy Governor of Cuba to lead an expedition. An educated and ambitious man, Cortés sought wealth and new lands. With 11 ships and a 'holy company' of men, he set out to explore, spread Christianity, and claim territories for Spain.
The Spanish, armed with gunpowder and steel, found their European armor superior to Aztec weaponry. Cortés declared his independence from the Cuban governor and established a new colony. He strategically allied with local rulers who resented Aztec rule. A key asset was Marina, a slave fluent in both Maya and Nahuatl, who became Cortés's translator and facilitated communication with indigenous groups. Cortés manipulated the visit of Aztec tax collectors to his advantage, imprisoning them and then releasing two to send a deceptive message of friendship to Moctezuma, while securing the local chief's allegiance.
Moctezuma, a religious and philosophical man, struggled to react to the Spanish threat. His attempts to welcome and bribe the Spanish with gifts, based on Aztec cultural norms, were misinterpreted by Cortés as submission. The Aztecs' concept of warfare, focused on capturing enemies for sacrifice rather than killing, meant their weapons were designed to disable, making them ill-suited against the Spanish.
The Holy Company encountered resistance from the Tlaxcalans, a Highland kingdom independent from the Aztecs. Despite initial fierce fighting where Tlaxcalan warriors showed their traditional non-lethal combat style, Cortés eventually pacified them through brutal tactics and negotiation, turning them into crucial allies. As they approached Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma's envoys, influenced by hallucinogenic rituals, delivered warnings and indecisive messages to Cortés.
While Cortés was away fighting a rival Spanish force sent from Cuba, his deputy Alvarado ordered a brutal massacre of Aztec noblemen during a religious festival in Tenochtitlan. This act sparked a full-scale rebellion, trapping the Spanish garrison. Moctezuma attempted to quell the uprising but was stoned by his own people and died. The Spanish, trying to escape the city under cover of night, suffered a devastating defeat known as 'La Noche Triste' (The Sad Night), losing many men and much of their acquired gold.
Cortés and his surviving forces retreated to Tlaxcala, where they were safe. Despite the defeat, Cortés rebuilt his army, pacifying the surrounding lands and consolidating his alliance with the Tlaxcalans. More significantly, European diseases, particularly smallpox, introduced unwittingly by the Spanish, began to decimate the Aztec population, severely weakening the empire and its social structures. The population of ancient Mexico was reduced by about 90% due to these new diseases and environmental changes.
Cortés meticulously prepared for a siege, constructing brigantines (small sailing ships) to control Lake Texcoco and cut off Tenochtitlan's water supply. In May 1521, the siege began. Spanish brigantines destroyed Aztec canoes, isolating the city. The fighting was brutal, with Cortés systematically burning houses and advancing through the city. Despite fierce resistance, the severely weakened and besieged Aztecs, short on food and water, ultimately surrendered on August 13, 1521. The new emperor, Cuauhtemoc, was captured and later tortured and executed.
Cortés initially ruled New Spain as Captain General, but the Spanish monarch soon curbed his power. The conquest led to the complete destruction of the Aztec Empire, replaced by a new Spanish colonial system. The indigenous population suffered immensely from disease, forced labor, and the loss of their culture and identity. Cortés, after returning to Spain, died in Seville in 1547. His conquest marked the beginning of a new era, irrevocably changing the course of history for the 'New World'.