Summary
Highlights
Adolf Hitler, a relatively unknown politician in the 1920s, deliberately cultivated an air of mystery by refusing to be photographed. This strategy created significant public curiosity, forcing people to attend his rallies to see him. Photographer Heinrich Hoffman eventually became Hitler's official photographer, meticulously crafting a 'picture perfect' image that portrayed him as a charismatic leader with a vision for a strong new Germany. Hitler exploited Germany's post-World War I humiliation, economic depression, and public anger, effectively scapegoating Jews and Communists. After a failed coup attempt, Hitler realized the importance of persuasion, outlining his propaganda strategy in Mein Kampf: simple messages repeated constantly to appeal to the 'stupid masses' and build a 'Führer Cult'.
A master strategist, Joseph Goebbels, with a Ph.D. in romantic literature, took charge of Hitler's image and mass manipulation. Goebbels, who admired Hitler and harbored anti-Semitic views, actively mobilized street propaganda and refined Hitler's public persona. The Nazis issued postcards and used rallies to make Hitler stand out, portraying him as a figure unlike any other politician. His speeches were compared to rock concerts, enabling attendees to lose their individual identity and become part of a collective. Propaganda also focused on softening Hitler's image, presenting him as 'everyone's favorite uncle' through photos. Hitler effectively used the airplane for campaigning, reaching 20 cities in six days, helping the Nazis win power in 1933. After becoming dictator, the propaganda machine intensified, using cinema, notably Leni Riefenstahl's 'Triumph of the Will,' to portray Hitler as a superhuman leader, rebuilding Germany into a formidable power that made other European nations apprehensive.
Benito Mussolini, the Italian dictator who coined the term 'fascism,' also mastered the art of public image. Hitler initially admired and modeled himself after Mussolini, though their first meeting in 1934 was disastrous. Mussolini's political style, flamboyance, and constant self-promotion made him one of the most popular leaders of his time. He was seen as a charismatic figure with superhuman qualities, eliciting admiration from people across all age groups. Beneath this charming facade, Mussolini was a ruthless politician who used brute force, including his 'black shirts' army, to crush opposition. He styled himself 'Il Duce' and acted as a new Roman Emperor, attempting to build an empire by invading Ethiopia. Despite international condemnation and sanctions, Hitler offered Mussolini 'moral support,' strengthening their bond and leading to the infamous 'Axis' alliance.
Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Communist Party and leader of the Soviet Union, presented himself as a dependable figure dedicated to industrializing the underdeveloped country. Propaganda showcased happy faces, portraying communism as a success story of worker's utopia and equality, all under Stalin's steady leadership. Unlike Hitler or Mussolini, Stalin cultivated an image of a 'safe pair of hands' with an 'iron will' to bring the Soviet Union into a new era. His image was omnipresent, creating a semi-religious cult around his persona. However, behind this carefully constructed image lay a brutal dictatorship built on terror. Stalin was manipulative, paranoid, and ruthless, responsible for forced labor camps, the genocide of Ukrainian peasants, and the execution of anyone suspected of disloyalty. His rule was characterized by uncertainty and fear, with even applause at his speeches becoming a terrifying test of loyalty.
By the 1930s, Europe was dominated by three dictators: the fascists Hitler and Mussolini, and the communist Stalin, whose opposing ideologies were set to clash. The Spanish Civil War, erupting in 1936 after fascists led by General Francisco Franco overthrew the elected government, became a proxy war between these ideologies. Hitler and Mussolini supported the fascists with military aid, while Stalin backed the leftists. Newsreels of the brutal conflict instilled fear across Europe, as many worried that such devastation could spread to their own cities, foreshadowing a larger inevitable conflict despite the fascist victory in Spain.
In Japan, a prevailing belief in the emperor's divinity and the country's divine mission to rule Asia fueled expansionist ambitions. The deep-seated hostilities with China, driven by Japan's desire for territory and resources, escalated into all-out war in 1937. Japanese artists and writers were sent to the front to create nationalist propaganda, but novelist Tatsuzo Ishikawa witnessed the horrific reality of the 'Rape of Nanking,' where Japanese soldiers committed widespread murder and rape. His uncensored account, 'The Living Soldiers,' exposed these atrocities, but was suppressed by censors, and Ishikawa was arrested for disturbing peace and order. Meanwhile, Father Alphonse Dubé, a Canadian priest, protected hundreds of Chinese refugees in his mission outside Nanking. The brutal conflict, which ultimately killed over 20 million people, showed the devastating impact of unchecked nationalism and desensitization of humanity.
In the late 1930s, Hitler's propaganda machine continued to promote his image, maintaining his popularity despite his autocratic rule and suppression of opposition. Anti-Semitic messages were integrated even into innocent events, fostering an 'exclusive community' based on racial purity. Joseph Goebbels shrewdly utilized radio, making 'people's radios' affordable and broadcasting Nazi programming into millions of German homes. Opposition newspapers were banned, allowing for the propagation of virulently anti-Semitic publications like 'Der Stürmer' and even children's books filled with hate. Books by Jewish authors or those deemed dangerous were publicly burned. The increasingly strict Nuremberg laws of 1935 defined Jewish identity by ancestry, leading to the persecution and marginalization of Jewish individuals. The Solmitz family, including Luise Solmitz, a devoted Nazi supporter, discovered her husband Friedrich's Jewish heritage, leading to their ostracization and deep despair. The escalating hatred culminated in Kristallnacht in 1938, a coordinated attack on Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues, resulting in killings and mass arrests, and signaling the imminent catastrophe of war as Hitler pursued his ambition for greater Germany.