Summary
Highlights
Following Germany's defeat in World War I and Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication in November 1918, a dangerous myth emerged suggesting the army was betrayed by politicians. The Treaty of Versailles dismembered the Austro-Hungarian Empire, created new nations, and significantly reduced Germany's size, imposing massive reparations. The newly formed Weimar Republic faced political extremism, hyperinflation, and economic devastation, providing fertile ground for figures like Adolf Hitler.
Adolf Hitler, an Austrian-born WWI veteran, quickly gained control of the Nazi party through fiery oratory. After a failed coup in 1923, he wrote "Mein Kampf," blaming Jews for Germany's woes and advocating for territorial expansion. The Great Depression in 1929 fueled the Nazi's rise, making them the largest party in the Reichstag by 1932. Hitler became Chancellor in 1933, swiftly consolidated power, banned other parties, and declared himself 'Führer' after President Hindenburg's death in 1934. He initiated public works to boost the economy and secretly began a massive rearmament program, unveiling the Luftwaffe and expanding the army beyond the Versailles Treaty limits.
Japan, a growing military power with economic problems and an exploding population, sought resources in Chinese Manchuria. In 1931, Japanese forces seized Manchuria, establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo. Despite universal condemnation, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations, exposing the organization's impotence. Japan then invaded China in 1937, leading to brutal conflict, including the Nanjing Massacre. Western powers, distracted by the Great Depression and unwilling to risk war, failed to intervene effectively, further emboldening aggressor nations.
Benito Mussolini rose to power in Italy in 1922 amidst political chaos, establishing a fascist dictatorship. He implemented popular public works, combatted corruption, and built up Italy's military, including a powerful navy. Inspired by the Roman Empire, Mussolini targeted Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia), provoking a clash in 1934. Despite an appeal to the League of Nations by Emperor Haile Selassie, the League proved ineffective. Italy invaded in 1935, swiftly conquering Abyssinia with modern military superiority, including the use of gas bombs, demonstrating the lack of will from Britain and France to confront aggression.
Both Britain and France were severely weakened by World War I, experiencing economic hardship, mass unemployment, and a general aversion to conflict. Their militaries were reduced, and France adopted a defensive strategy with the Maginot Line. This reluctance to engage allowed Italy's aggression in Abyssinia to go largely unchallenged, revealing the democracies' unwillingness to fight and their focus on internal issues, including the Great Depression. This apathy would soon be tested closer to home with a resurgent Germany.
The Spanish Civil War erupted in 1936 between the left-wing Popular Front government and right-wing nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco. Hitler and Mussolini provided significant military aid to Franco, testing new equipment and tactics like the Luftwaffe's Condor Legion. Britain and France adopted a policy of non-intervention, while the Soviet Union provided limited support to the Republic. The Nationalists' superior modern weaponry and the disunity within the Republican ranks ultimately led to Franco's victory in March 1939. This conflict reinforced Hitler and Mussolini's belief in the democracies' weakness and accelerated Hitler's aggressive expansionist plans.
From 1933, Hitler pursued territorial expansion, beginning with the secret development of armored warfare and air power. In 1935, he announced the existence of the Luftwaffe and reintroduced conscription, met with only feeble protests from Britain and France. In 1938, Hitler orchestrated the annexation of Austria into the Third Reich. He then targeted Czechoslovakia, demanding the Sudetenland. The Munich Agreement in September 1938, mediated by Mussolini, conceded the Sudetenland to Germany in exchange for Hitler's promise of no further territorial ambitions, which Chamberlain declared as "peace in our time." However, Hitler soon seized the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939. His subsequent demands for Danzig from Poland led Britain and France to declare they would go to war if Poland was attacked. A non-aggression pact between the Soviet Union and Germany in August 1939, secretly dividing Poland, removed any last obstacle for Hitler, leading to the invasion of Poland and the outbreak of World War II.