Persia — The Empire That Ruled the World

Cyrus was a brilliant conqueror and shrewd statesman, treating conquered peoples with leniency and relying on local elites. He allowed displaced peoples, including the Jews, to return to their homelands. His system was based on tolerance, cooperation, and local autonomy, as Persians were a minority in the vast empire.

Most of our understanding of ancient Persia comes from biased Greek accounts, which often misrepresent Persian names and culture. Valuable insights are also drawn from the Royal Archive at Persepolis, containing thousands of cuneiform tablets with economic records, offering a clearer picture of the empire.

The Persians, or Parsy, were Indo-Iranian people who migrated from Central Asia. They were pastoral nomads practicing 'vertical nomadism,' moving with the seasons. They were known as skilled Horsemen, modest, and physically distinct from the peoples of the Fertile Crescent.

In the 7th Century BC, the Persians captured the Elamite city of Anshan. Cyrus II, or Cyrus the Great, came to power in the 6th Century BC, leading a rebellion against the Median Empire and establishing Pasargadae as his capital. He then launched rapid military campaigns, conquering various regions and eventually the Neo-Babylonian Empire without a fight.

After Cyrus's death in a campaign against Scythian tribes, his son Cambyses reestablished control over rebellious territories and invaded Egypt. His plans to conquer Carthage and Kush failed due to various setbacks. Cambyses died on his way to suppress a revolt in Babylon, leading to a power struggle where Darius seized the throne by claiming Cambyses's brother was an impostor.

Darius, though not a direct descendant of Cyrus, legitimized his rule by claiming ancestry from Achaemenes, founding the Achaemenid Dynasty. He spent his early reign quelling revolts and conducting military campaigns. His true legacy lies in his administrative reforms, dividing the empire into satrapies, introducing a standardized currency (the gold Daric), and building an extensive network of roads, a postal system, and the first version of the Suez Canal.

Monumental construction flourished under Darius, with Persepolis becoming the new ceremonial capital. The Persian Empire had five major capitals. The backbone of the Persian army was the 'Immortals,' an elite infantry force of 10,000 men, supported by archers, slingers, heavy and light cavalry, and auxiliary troops from various subject nations and mercenaries.

Persians practiced an early form of Zoroastrianism called Mazdaism, a henotheistic religion that placed Ahura Mazda as the chief deity among others. They were remarkably tolerant of religious diversity and never imposed their faith on conquered peoples. They also had a curious decision-making tradition involving discussion while drunk and reconsideration while sober.

The Greco-Persian Wars began with the Ionian Revolt in 499 BC, supported by Athens and other Greek city-states. After the rebellion was crushed, Persia demanded submission from Greek city-states. Athens and Sparta refused, leading to a punitive expedition by Darius. The first major battle occurred at Marathon, where the Greeks, despite being outnumbered, decisively defeated the Persians who were hampered by geographical disadvantages and a tactical surprise.

Darius's successor, Xerxes, assembled a massive army and marched on Greece. The Greeks made a stand at the narrow pass of Thermopylae, where a small force, including the famous 300 Spartans, held off the Persians for two days before being annihilated. The Persians advanced to Athens, which was evacuated. The decisive naval Battle of Salamis followed, where the heavier Greek triremes defeated the Persian fleet in the narrow straits, shattering their supply lines.

After Salamis, the Persian army retreated, leading to further Greek victories. Persia was forced to agree to peace, giving up control of Aegean islands and parts of Asia Minor. Persia then shifted to cultural influence and bribery to dominate Greece. However, the true downfall came from Macedon. Philip II planned an invasion of Persia, but his assassination led to his son, Alexander the Great, fulfilling the ambition. Alexander swept through the Achaemenid Empire, never suffering a defeat, and by 329 BC, the empire ceased to exist.

Despite the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and the beginning of the Hellenistic age, Persia's legacy endured, evolving through the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, the Parthian Kingdom, and the Sasanian Dynasty. The Persian language survives today, and communities still preserve the ancient Zoroastrian faith in modern Iran.