Summary
Highlights
Britain, supported by Commonwealth nations, continued the fight. The Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) solidified their alliance with the Tripartite Pact. The Soviet Union struggled in its war against Finland and then annexed Baltic states and parts of Romania. French colonies in Equatorial Africa sided with Free France, except Gabon. Italy, inspired by German successes, attempted to expand in British Somaliland, Egypt, and Greece, largely failing and earning Churchill's moniker of 'Europe's soft underbelly'.
The Tripartite Pact aimed to prevent other nations, particularly the US, from joining the Allies. American public opinion initially favored neutrality, but President Roosevelt, while promising not to send troops, began supplying the Allies with weapons and supplies. German U-boats posed a significant threat to Allied supply lines in the Atlantic. Innovations like improved radar, long-range aircraft, convoy tactics, and the cracking of the Enigma code by Alan Turing helped counter the U-boat threat.
In Africa, Britain pushed Italy out of Egypt. Hitler, concerned, pressured Bulgaria and Yugoslavia to join the Axis; Bulgaria did, Yugoslavia was invaded. Greece also fell. Rommel's forces pushed the British back in Africa, but the siege of Tobruk disrupted German supply lines. Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, catching Stalin unprepared. Germany made rapid gains, capturing vast numbers of Soviet troops and besieging Leningrad. Despite reaching Moscow, the harsh Russian winter, coupled with Hitler's refusal to allow retreat, halted the German advance and allowed the Soviets to counter-attack with Siberian troops.
Japan, seeking raw materials and eager to expand its influence, planned to move southward into Southeast Asia, largely colonized by American and British powers. Believing they needed to neutralize Allied navies first, Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, as well as British colonies. This led the US and UK to declare war on Japan, and Hitler declared war on America. Despite the damage at Pearl Harbor, critical infrastructure remained intact. Japan rapidly conquered Guam, Wake Island, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, and other territories, threatening Australia and India.
Occupied nations suffered under Axis rule, with the Holocaust unfolding in Europe. Hitler resumed his eastward push, focusing on the oil-rich Caucasus. His forces advanced easily, but his overconfidence led him to reroute the Fourth Panzer Army, leaving the Sixth Army to take Stalingrad alone. The brutal fighting in Stalingrad lasted five months, allowing the Soviets to rebuild their military. Stalin then encircled the Sixth Army, leading to its surrender. Elsewhere, Allied bombing intensified over German cities, and German and Italian forces were defeated in North Africa. In the Pacific, the US Navy decisively defeated Japan at the Battle of Midway, a turning point in the Pacific war.
With the Axis out of Africa, the Allies debated their next move. Churchill favored a southern attack, leading to the Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy. Mussolini was overthrown, and Italy began negotiating surrender. Hitler, anticipating this, sent reinforcements. The Allies continued fighting up Italy, but winter conditions slowed their advance. Meanwhile, massive Allied forces prepared in England for a full-scale invasion of Europe. Through deception, the Allies convinced Germany that the invasion would be at Calais, but landed in Normandy on June 6, 1944 (D-Day). Despite heavy losses, particularly at Omaha Beach, the landings were successful, leading to the capture of key cities and the eventual liberation of Paris, pushing Germans out of France and into Belgium.
In the Far East, the Allies pushed Japan out of Burma, while American forces launched a two-pronged offensive in the Pacific. General MacArthur led the liberation of the Philippines, and General Nimitz oversaw the brutal island-hopping campaign towards mainland Japan. Japanese forces fought fiercely, believing surrender was dishonorable. In Europe, Hitler, in a desperate last attempt, launched the Ardennes Offensive, creating a 'bulge' and trapping American forces in Bastogne. The Americans refused to surrender, and General Patton's Third Army relieved them, pushing the Germans back. Hitler's attempt failed, leading to the collapse of German forces. The Allies pushed into Germany from both sides, with the Soviets capturing Warsaw and advancing on Berlin. Hitler, in his bunker, realized defeat, and Berlin fell.
With Germany defeated, the Americans assaulted Okinawa, the last island before mainland Japan. The Japanese resisted fiercely with kamikaze attacks, but Okinawa was captured. Faced with a costly invasion of Japan, the Allies decided to use the newly developed atomic bomb. On August 6th and 9th, 1945, atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan's surrender in September. The war, after six years, was over. Japan was occupied for eight years, and the Emperor's divine image was shattered. Germany was divided among the Allied powers, forming West Germany in 1949. World War II, a more devastating conflict than the first, led to the rise of two superpowers with opposing ideologies, setting the stage for the Cold War.