Summary
Highlights
India is renowned for its rich cultural heritage, with sculpture and architecture providing a unique identity. Ancient Indian town planning, particularly of the Indus Valley Civilization, surpassed contemporary global standards. Sculpture is defined as the art of shaping figures with facial expressions using tools like chisels and hammers on materials such as stone, wood, or metal. Architecture, referred to as 'vastu' in Sanskrit, is the art of constructing buildings, houses, towns, wells, forts, minarets, temples, mosques, and tombs, showcasing an architect's skill.
Ancient India excelled in town planning, with archaeological excavations revealing well-organized towns divided into three sections: forts for rulers (citadel) on the upper part, houses for administrative officers, and residences for common people on the lower part. Rulers' forts were constructed on elevated and protected areas, with houses typically having two to five rooms. Lower town houses were primarily built with handmade bricks. The Indus Valley Civilization developed highly systematic and beautiful towns, with Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro being exceptional examples.
Discovered in 1922 by Rakhaldas Banerjee and Dayaram Sahni under the guidance of Sir John Marshall and Colonel Megha, Mohenjo-Daro (meaning 'heap of the dead') showcases superior town planning. Houses were built on high plinths to prevent flood damage. Rich residents had double-storied houses with five to seven rooms, while the poor had single-storied houses with two to three rooms. The town was fortified, and house entrances faced side lanes, not main roads. Each house had a storehouse, kitchen, and bathroom, with proper ventilation. The roads were a main feature, 9.75 meters wide, with smaller roads intersecting at right angles. There were two main roads (north-south and east-west) that crossed each other at right angles, without turns, a specialty for ancient times, and evidence of lamp posts along the roads.
Mohenjo-Daro featured a unique and highly efficient drainage system, unparalleled except in the island of Crete. This system effectively drained dirty water from the town, with every house having a cesspit, indicating a strong emphasis on health and hygiene. A massive public bath was excavated, with provisions for fresh water inflow and dirty water outflow, likely used for festivals and religious ceremonies, and equipped with changing rooms and possibly hot water. Ruins of two large public buildings suggest their use as a town hall, theater, administrative office, or granary. Barracks were also found, likely for soldiers.
Harappa, discovered in 1921 by Dayaram Sahni under Sir John Marshall and Colonel Megha, revealed ancient remains near Montgomery in Punjab (now Pakistan). Other significant Indus Valley Civilization sites include Ropar, Alamgirpur, Kalibangan, Lothal, Deshalpar, Shikarpur, Dholavira, Rangpur, and Srinathgard/Rojdi. The civilization flourishing in the Sapta Sindhu river region is known as the Indus Valley Civilization, and due to the initial discovery at Harappa, it's also called Harappan Civilization. The presence of copper and stone artifacts led to its designation as the Copper-Stone Age. Harappan town planning was systematic, with remarkable granaries and forts, and evidence suggests a fondness for ornaments among its people.
Dholavira, a large and systematic ancient town contemporary to Harappa, was found 2 km from Dholavira village in Khadir Beyt, Gujarat. Excavations began in 1990 under Ravindra Singh Bisht. Remains at Dholavira show palaces and town walls painted white, with fortified walls of clay, stone, and bricks providing strong security. A sophisticated water purification system, advanced even for modern times, was present. Lothal, located in Dholka taluka of Ahmedabad district between the Bhoguvo and Sabarmati rivers, is 18 km from the Bay of Khambhat. Three layers of human habitat were discovered, along with a huge dockyard to accommodate ships during high tides, showcasing its importance as a prosperous port for exports and imports, a source of pride for Gujarat and Indian history.
Mauryan art saw the construction of stupas, which are oval-shaped structures housing the remains of Lord Buddha. Five famous stupas from King Ashoka's time include those at Sanchi, Sarnath, Bherat, Nandanggar, and Devani Mori (Gujarat). Chaityas, viharas, and mutts were also built. Ashoka's reign was a golden age for Buddhism and for sculpture and architecture. Buddhist influence contributed significantly to architectural forms like caves, viharas, chaityas, and stupas.
The Sanchi Stupa, built during the Mauryan period in Madhya Pradesh, was originally made of bricks and was half the current size. It stands as a valuable example of architectural art. Key elements include the 'Hermika', a railing around the top of the oval-shaped stupa, and the 'Medy' (or 'Pradakshina Path'), a slightly elevated circular path around the stupa or place of worship used for circumambulation, ensuring the place of worship remains on the right side. 'Toran' refers to a gateway built on two high pillars with an artistic horizontal beam, serving as an entrance for devotees.
Pillar inscriptions, made from single rocks and carved with the religious orders of Emperor Ashoka, are exquisite examples of stone engraving. These pillars were highly polished to a gleam and erected in places like Ambala, Meerut, Allahabad, Sarnath, Lauria near Nandangad, Sanchi, Kashi, Patna, and Bodhi Vriksha near Bodhgaya, inscribed in Brahmi script. The Sarnath pillar is a prime specimen of sculpture, featuring four lions facing the cardinal directions, symbolizing Lord Buddha's preaching at Sarnath. Below the lions are carved Dharma Chakras, signifying the triumph of religion. The pillar also includes sculptures of an elephant, horse, and bullock. The Dharma Chakra is incorporated into India's national flag, and the four lions serve as the national emblem, recognized as a world-class sculptural masterpiece.
Stone sculpting demonstrates excellent architectural art, complemented by wooden and stone pillars. Beautiful arches engraved on doors often conveyed religious themes. Stone inscriptions have been discovered in various locations, including Peshawar, Dehradun, Thane, Mumbai, Dhauli, Jagada (Odisha), and Chennai. In Gujarat, a significant stone inscription is found at the foothill of Girnar Mountain en route to Junagadh. Additionally, Jain temples at Palitana on Citrunjay Mountain and the Hathisingh Jain Temple (1847 A.D.) in Ahmedabad feature stone inscriptions providing detailed information in Sanskrit and Gujarati languages.