Summary
Highlights
Following the secession of Southern states after Lincoln's election, the Confederacy was formed. Lincoln, believing secession unconstitutional, sought to reunite the Union without firing the first shot. A solution arose with Fort Sumter in South Carolina, a federal fort in Confederate territory whose Union troops needed resupply. Lincoln sent ships, and Confederate President Jefferson Davis, unwilling to tolerate a Union presence, ordered an attack. The Union soldiers surrendered, giving Lincoln the justification to declare war.
Neither side had a clear advantage at the war's outset. The Union had a significant population advantage (nearly five times larger) and superior economic resources including banks, factories, and railroads for sustained war efforts. The Confederacy, however, had 'King Cotton' as a major export, hoping to leverage European dependence for alliances. In terms of leadership, the South initially boasted more talented generals like Robert E. Lee and 'Stonewall' Jackson, benefiting from a defensive war with shorter supply lines. Lincoln struggled with indecisive generals until Ulysses S. Grant took command later in the war.
Both sides eventually adopted 'total war,' committing all economic and societal resources to victory. Early on, some believed the war would be quick, even picnicking to watch battles, but the bloodshed proved it would be long. A key aspect of total war was the military draft. The Confederate draft faced issues due to its emphasis on states' rights, limiting the central government's power to compel service. It also allowed exemptions for wealthy planters and for paying substitutes, leading to resentment among the poor. The Union draft, while more effective due to centralized power, also allowed for substitutes, causing similar anger. Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus to arrest draft dodgers and Southern sympathizers further fueled resistance, culminating in the New York City draft riots of 1863, fueled by Irish immigrant resentment over perceived job competition with freed slaves and the exemption system.
The Union's victory can be attributed to several factors. First, improvements in leadership and strategy. Early battles, like the First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), revealed the strength of the Confederacy and Lincoln's initial struggle with competent generals. However, Ulysses S. Grant's victories in the West, particularly the Siege of Vicksburg in 1863, which secured the Mississippi River and split the Confederacy, proved his capabilities. This, combined with the Union victory at Gettysburg, marked a turning point, leading Lincoln to appoint Grant as general of all Union armies.
Second, the North's greater resources enabled Grant to pursue a war of attrition, exhausting Confederate supplies and morale. As the war prolonged, Southern morale deteriorated due to increasing hardships. Many Southerners resented their government, feeling it was both overreaching and failing to address their suffering. Bread riots in 1863, caused by inflation and food shortages, highlighted the populace's discontent and undermined support for the Confederate cause.
Third, the Union's strategy to destroy Southern infrastructure further hastened their victory. General William Tecumseh Sherman's 'March to the Sea' is a prime example. After capturing Atlanta, a major railroad hub, Sherman implemented a scorched-earth strategy, destroying everything in his path from Chattanooga to Savannah. This devastating campaign crippled the Confederacy's ability to transport troops and supplies, significantly demoralizing the South. The war concluded in 1865 when Grant captured a key railroad junction in Virginia, cutting off the Confederate army's escape, leading to Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse.