Summary
Highlights
Mexico's history is marked by epic and violent struggles that have defined its culture and identity. The Spanish conquest and the subsequent 300 years of Spanish rule created deep divisions between indigenous and European peoples, and between church and state. After Spanish occupation, Mexico faced five foreign invasions in less than 100 years. Despite its rich natural resources and biodiversity, Mexico has struggled with internal communication and water issues, largely due to its challenging geography.
The abdication of the Spanish Bourbon Dynasty to Napoleon in 1808 created a crisis of legitimacy in New Spain. This led to a profound anti-Spanish sentiment among Creoles and lower castes. In 1810, from the town of Dolores Hidalgo, Father Miguel Hidalgo launched the rebellion for independence with his 'Grito,' or cry for independence. He, along with Ignacio Allende, raised a citizen's army and marched towards Mexico City, but a massacre in Guanajuato alienated Creole support.
Hidalgo's insurrection was brutally defeated by the Royal Army. Hidalgo, Allende, and other leaders were captured, defrocked, and executed. Their heads were displayed for 10 years as a warning. The massacre at the Alhóndiga prolonged the war by alienating Creole support. Jose Maria Morelos, another politicized priest, took up Hidalgo's mantle. Morelos, a more skilled general, organized a proper armed force but faced less support from indigenous communities who feared losing their privileged positions under the colonial regime.
Agustín de Iturbide, a royalist general who had fought against Morelos, later joined forces with rebel leader Vincente Guerrero. They formed a grand coalition, leading to Mexico's independence. Iturbide became Emperor Agustin I, but his reign was short-lived due to deep divisions between royalists and republicans. He was deposed, exiled, and upon his return to Mexico, was executed in 1824.
Spain refused to recognize Mexico's independence, making it difficult for the new nation to secure loans and reestablish commerce. The Vatican's non-recognition also led to a crisis within the church. Spain's attempt to reconquer Mexico in 1829 was repelled. Mexico became a republic, and Vicente Guerrero became president, notably abolishing slavery before being executed in 1830. Universal male suffrage was surprisingly established early in Mexico's history, but internal divisions and conservative fears of 'tumultuous democracy' persisted.
Antonio López de Santa Anna, a charismatic army general, rose to prominence by playing both sides of the political spectrum. He was seen as a messianic figure who could stabilize the nation amidst political and economic crises. Santa Anna was a military hero, who defeated Spanish attempts to retake the country and fought in the Pastry War with France. Despite his military prowess, he was known for corruption and used his position for personal gain, constantly intriguing to regain power.
Mexico inherited vast northern territories from New Spain, but these remote outposts were sparsely populated and difficult to control. The cash-strapped Mexican government withdrew funding for border fortresses, leading to increased raids by indigenous tribes like the Apache and Comanche. These raids devastated northern Mexico, and a brutal cycle of violence and bounties for scalps emerged. The expansion of the United States pushed Comanche tribes into Mexican territory, further exacerbating the situation.
American settlers, many of whom supported slavery, moved into Mexican territories like Texas. When Mexico outlawed slavery in 1835, it intensified demands for Texan independence. The Texan revolt culminated in the Battle of the Alamo in 1836, where Santa Anna's forces brutally suppressed the American uprising, executing all defenders. This event fueled American sentiment that Texas should belong to the United States.
US President James K. Polk, a pro-slavery Democrat, engineered a land dispute to expand American territory. This led to the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). Mexico, plagued by political instability and a poorly equipped army, was at a severe disadvantage. The US Army, utilizing tactics learned at West Point, invaded Mexico, eventually occupying Mexico City. The heroic defense of Chapultepec Castle by Mexican cadets became a symbol of national resistance.
The war was costly and divisive for both nations, but particularly disastrous for Mexico, which lost a vast amount of territory to the US for $15 million. This territorial acquisition deepened divisions in the US, contributing to the Civil War. Santa Anna, who had served as president multiple times, was ultimately ousted for good in 1855, forever associated with Mexico's territorial losses. He died an old man, a tragic figure who fell from being considered the greatest Mexican of his time.