Summary
Highlights
Life in Germany during World War I became increasingly harsh due to a British naval blockade causing severe shortages of food and medicine. Initial optimism for a swift victory faded, leading to widespread war weariness and protests. The failure of the Schlieffen Plan resulted in a prolonged war on two fronts, stretching German resources thin. By 1918, Germany was on the brink of collapse, facing food shortages, a flu epidemic, and widespread discontent.
In October 1918, German generals admitted defeat, leading to Allied demands for Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication. His refusal sparked widespread unrest, including a naval mutiny at Kiel, which spread rapidly, forming workers' and soldiers' councils across Germany. The Kaiser abdicated on November 9, 1918, and Friedrich Ebert, leader of the Social Democratic Party, formed a new government. An armistice, signed on November 11, ended the war, leaving Germany deeply in debt, socially divided, and politically unstable, fueling the 'stab in the back' myth.
The Weimar Republic was established between November 1918 and July 1919 after Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication. Friedrich Ebert, the first president, worked to stabilize the new government by retaining civil servants, army officers, and reassuring industrialists, while promising trade unions an 8-hour workday. Despite these efforts, the Republic faced opposition from monarchists and communists. Elections in January 1919 saw moderate parties gain significant support, and the National Assembly met in Weimar to draft a new constitution, thus naming the new government the 'Weimar Republic'.
The Weimar Constitution, established in July 1919, aimed to create a democratic and fair government. It granted all men and women over 21 the right to vote, featured proportional representation in the Reichstag, and distributed power among the president, chancellor, and parliament with regional autonomy. Key strengths included its progressive voting rights and diverse representation. However, weaknesses included Article 48, which granted the president emergency decree powers, and proportional representation, which often led to unstable coalition governments and allowed extremist parties to gain influence.
The Weimar Republic faced early unpopularity due to leaders being labeled 'November criminals' for signing the Armistice and the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty imposed harsh terms: £6.6 billion in reparations, a war guilt clause (Article 231), loss of overseas territories, severe military restrictions, and significant territorial losses in Europe. Germans viewed it as a 'dictat' or dictated peace, believing it was unfairly imposed and would cripple their economy, especially given their hopes for a lenient peace based on Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points. France and Britain's conflicting aims resulted in a compromise that left Germany feeling betrayed.
By 1922, Germany could not afford reparations, leading to the French and Belgian occupation of the industrial Ruhr region in January 1923. The German government responded by telling workers to go on strike ('passive resistance') and printed more money to pay their wages, which spiraled into hyperinflation. Prices skyrocketed, with a loaf of bread costing billions of marks by November 1923. Savings became worthless, severely impacting the middle class and pensioners. The Weimar government was largely blamed, leading to further instability and widespread dissatisfaction.
Despited an 80% moderate vote in 1919, the Weimar Republic faced significant threats from extremist groups. Left-wing groups like the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) sought to end capitalism and establish a socialist state inspired by the 1917 Russian Revolution. Key events included the Spartacist Uprising in January 1919, where Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg led a communist attempt to seize Berlin, which was brutally suppressed by the Freikorps. Widespread strikes and the short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic also demonstrated the left's revolutionary aims, but these lacked coordinated leadership.
Right-wing groups, such as the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP/Nazis) and the German National People's Party (DNVP), sought to restore a strong, authoritarian government, often supporting capitalism and traditional values. Ex-soldiers, or Freikorps, violently suppressed left-wing uprisings but also challenged the Republic. In March 1920, Wolfgang Kapp led the Kapp Putsch, a right-wing coup in Berlin that failed due to a general strike. Political violence, largely from the right, resulted in over 350 political murders between 1919 and 1920, often with lenient sentences due to judiciary sympathies. Many parties formed private armies, further destabilizing the political climate.
Between 1924 and 1929, Germany experienced a period of stability and recovery known as the 'Golden Age,' largely due to the efforts of Gustav Stresemann, who served as Chancellor and later Foreign Minister. Stresemann introduced the Rentenmark and later the Reichmark to stabilize the currency, ending hyperinflation. He believed addressing reparations was crucial for recovery. His policies focused on economic stability and international respect for Germany, earning him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1926. His diplomatic skill helped Germany regain its standing in the international community.
Stresemann implemented the Dawes Plan (1924) and the Young Plan (1929) to restructure reparations and secure US loans. The Dawes Plan provided an 800 million gold mark loan and lowered annual payments, leading to French withdrawal from the Ruhr. The Young Plan further reduced reparations to £2 billion over 59 years. US loans fueled economic growth, doubling industrial output, increasing wages, and improving living standards. Stresemann's diplomacy led to the Locarno Pact (1925), Germany joining the League of Nations (1926), and signing the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928), improving Germany's international standing. While successful, this recovery was fragile, heavily reliant on US loans, as Stresemann himself acknowledged. His death in 1929 underlined this fragility.
Between 1924 and 1929, the standard of living in Germany improved significantly. Unemployment decreased, working hours shortened, and real wages rose by 25%. Over 100,000 new homes were built, and unemployment insurance was introduced in 1927, providing a crucial safety net. Higher education enrollment also increased. However, this recovery did not alleviate hardship for everyone, particularly those who lost savings during hyperinflation, and unemployment remained a concern for many.
The 1920s brought significant changes for women. They gained voting rights, with a 90% turnout in Weimar elections, and 112 women were elected to the Reichstag by 1932. Article 109 ensured equal rights, and women entered professions like education and medicine. 'New women' in urban areas embraced greater independence, new fashions (shorter skirts, trousers, makeup), and liberal lifestyles, including public smoking. However, their workforce participation dropped after 1918, and they often faced unequal pay and traditional expectations, leading to discomfort among conservatives worried about declining birth and rising divorce rates.
The 1920s were a 'Golden Age' for German culture, benefiting from freedom of speech under the Weimar Constitution and economic recovery. Avant-garde artists like Otto Dix depicted social realities, while the Bauhaus school revolutionized design with modern, functional styles. Cinema flourished, with Fritz Lang's 'Metropolis' and Marlene Dietrich gaining international fame. Literature saw success with works like Erich Maria Remarque's 'All Quiet on the Western Front,' and vibrant nightlife, particularly in Berlin, offered new plays, operas, and jazz clubs. However, many conservatives viewed these changes as 'cultural decay,' leading to campaigns against 'the tides of filth' and moral decline, with Nazis actively disrupting 'unpatriotic' or 'decadent' events.
Adolf Hitler, born in 1889 in Austria, failed as an artist and served as a messenger in WWI, earning the Iron Cross. Deeply affected by Germany's defeat and the Treaty of Versailles, he joined the German Workers' Party (DAP) in 1919 after investigating it for the army. The DAP's nationalist and anti-Treaty stance resonated with Hitler and other ex-soldiers. His powerful oratory skills quickly made him a prominent member, laying the groundwork for his rise within the party.
In January 1920, Hitler, as head of propaganda, created the 25-Point Programme, blending nationalist (strong government, autarchy, anti-Versailles) and socialist (equal rights, land redistribution) elements, alongside explicit antisemitism. To expand, he used his charismatic speeches, public advertisements, and purchased 'The People's Observer' newspaper. The DAP was renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party), adopting the swastika and straight-armed salute. In 1921, Hitler forced a leadership contest, becoming the undisputed leader, surrounded by key figures like Hermann Göring, Julius Streicher, Ernst Röhm, and General Ludendorff. In August 1921, the SA (Storm Troopers/Brownshirts) was formed under Röhm, using violence and intimidation against opponents and guarding Nazi meetings, attracting unemployed ex-soldiers. By November 1923, membership soared to 50,000, demonstrating the party's rapid growth and effective tactics.
By November 1923, Hitler believed conditions were ripe for a coup. Reasons included: widespread hostility towards the Weimar Republic due to the 'stab in the back' myth and the Treaty of Versailles; a sympathetic political climate in Bavaria; the 'Year of Crisis' (1923) with French occupation of the Ruhr and hyperinflation, which weakened the government; Hitler's belief in the Nazi Party's strength (50,000 members and the SA); and inspiration from Mussolini's successful 'March on Rome' in 1922, leading Hitler to plan a similar march on Berlin after taking Munich.
On November 8, 1923, Hitler interrupted a meeting in a Munich beer hall, announcing a national revolution and taking Bavarian leaders hostage, proclaiming General Ludendorff a new leader. The SA seized government buildings. The next day, after the hostages were released, Hitler led a march through Munich, which was met by armed police and soldiers. A brief shootout resulted in 14 Nazi deaths and Hitler's injury. He fled but was arrested on November 11. Consequences included Hitler's trial for treason, where he gained publicity, and a lenient 9-month prison sentence (out of 5 years). During imprisonment, he wrote 'Mein Kampf,' outlining his supremacist, expansionist, and anti-communist ideology. The failed putsch taught Hitler that power must be gained through legal means.
After his release in 1924, Hitler relaunched the Nazi Party, lifting the ban in 1925. He established a national headquarters in Munich, divided Germany into 35 'Gau' districts led by 'Gauleiters,' and attracted funding from industrialists. The SS (Schutzstaffel) was formed as a loyal private bodyguard, led by Heinrich Himmler. Special groups like the Nazi Women's League and Hitler Youth were created, and the party targeted farmers for support. The 1926 Bamberg Conference unified the party under Hitler's nationalist wing. Despite membership exceeding 100,000 by 1929, the Nazis had limited electoral success during this period of relative stability under Gustav Stresemann and President Hindenburg's leadership, which made extremist parties less appealing.
The 1929 Wall Street Crash triggered the Great Depression, devastating the German economy. Germany was particularly vulnerable due to its reliance on US loans (Dawes Plan) and export markets. As US banks recalled loans and global demand for German goods plummeted, businesses failed, leading to mass unemployment. Unemployment soared from 1.3 million in September 1929 to 6.1 million by January 1933, causing widespread homelessness and poverty. Business owners, farmers, and workers all faced severe hardship, with young people and university graduates hit especially hard, fueling discontent against the Weimar Republic.
The Great Depression exposed the fragility of the Weimar democracy. Moderate parties failed to agree on solutions, leading to Chancellor Brüning's reliance on President Hindenburg's Article 48 emergency decrees, effectively suspending democracy. Brüning's unpopular austerity measures further alienated the public. As the Weimar government appeared ineffective, Germans turned to extremist parties. The Nazi Party's seats in the Reichstag surged from 12 in 1928 to 107 in 1930, and 230 in July 1932, becoming the largest party. The Communist Party also saw increased support, appealing to workers. Hitler's charisma, widespread propaganda (radio, posters, rallies), anti-communist stance, and tailored messages for different social groups (big business, farmers, middle class, women, youth) propelled Nazi growth. The SA's violent intimidation tactics also suppressed opponents and influenced elections.
The period 1932-33 saw intense political instability in Germany. President Hindenburg, a conservative and military figure, was re-elected in April 1932. Chancellor Brüning resigned in May 1932, leading to successive chancellorships for Von Papen and Von Schleicher, neither of whom commanded a Reichstag majority. The Nazis became the largest party in July 1932 elections but Hitler was denied chancellorship. In December 1932, believing they could control him, Von Papen convinced Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor on January 30, 1933, with Von Papen as Vice-Chancellor and only two other Nazis in cabinet. They mistakenly thought Hitler would be a puppet, famously stating they would 'push Hitler so far into a corner that he'll squeak like a mouse'.
Hitler, appointed Chancellor on January 30, 1933, swiftly dismantled democracy. He called a new election for March 5, 1933, using suppression and propaganda against opponents. The Reichstag Fire on February 27, 1933, was exploited by Hitler, who blamed communists and convinced Hindenburg to issue an emergency decree suspending civil liberties. In the March election, Nazis won 44% of seats. On March 24, 1933, the Enabling Act was passed, granting Hitler legislative power without Reichstag approval, marking the end of the Weimar Constitution. By July 1933, Nazis controlled local governments, established the Gestapo, opened concentration camps, banned trade unions (replacing them with the DAF), and outlawed all other political parties, creating a one-party state.
Ernst Röhm, head of the SA, wanted to merge the SA with the army and challenge Hitler's authority, alarming Hitler, the army, and big business. On June 30, 1934, Hitler used the SS to purge the SA leadership in the 'Night of the Long Knives,' killing around 400 people, including Röhm and former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher. This cemented Hitler's control over the military and removed rivals, demonstrating the regime's terror. Upon President Hindenburg's death on August 2, 1934, Hitler combined the roles of Chancellor and President, declaring himself 'Führer' (leader) of Germany. The army swore a personal oath of loyalty to him, and a public plebiscite confirmed these changes, solidifying his totalitarian dictatorship.
To maintain power, Hitler established a police state. In 1936, Heinrich Himmler unified Germany's police forces under his command, including the SS, SD, and Gestapo. The SS (Schutzstaffel), initially Hitler's bodyguard, grew to 240,000 men by the late 1930s, distinguished by their black uniforms, and was divided into the SD (security, led by Reinhard Heydrich), the Waffen SS (elite military units), and the Death's Head units (concentration camp guards). The Gestapo (secret police), also led by Heydrich, had broad powers to spy, arrest, and detain without trial, relying heavily on public informants. While feared, the Gestapo's effectiveness was partly due to citizen cooperation and the pervasive fear it generated, rather than sheer manpower.
Concentration camps, initially for political opponents, expanded into a vast network for 'undesirables' (homosexuals, Roma, minorities). Inmates faced inhumane conditions, forced labor, and torture, with the SS overseeing their brutal administration. An estimated 200,000 Germans faced imprisonment for opposition. The Nazis also reshaped the legal system, establishing the People's Court and special courts. Judges were forced to follow Nazi policies, with no juries or right to appeal, ensuring swift and brutal suppression of any resistance, including sentencing and execution of opponents.
After 1933, the Nazis extensively used censorship and propaganda, led by Joseph Goebbels, to control public opinion and ensure support. Goebbels, Minister of Enlightenment and Propaganda, had vast control over media, sports, and culture. Films, approved by Goebbels, promoted Nazi ideals and demonized opponents (e.g., 'Triumph of the Will,' 'The Eternal Jew'). Mass rallies, especially the Nuremberg rallies, showcased Nazi power through spectacular displays. Newspapers were controlled by the Reich Press Chamber, publishing only pro-Nazi content. All radio stations were unified under the Reich Radio Company, broadcasting Nazi messages through cheap radios and public loudspeakers, ensuring widespread reach.
The Reich Chamber of Culture, formed in 1933 under Goebbels, controlled all artistic expression. Artists, writers, and musicians had to join, with 'undesirables' like Jewish people banned. Art that didn't conform to 'ideal' Aryan beauty was deemed 'degenerate' and destroyed (e.g., Bauhaus school), instead promoting images of healthy German life and Hitler. Literature saw book burnings (e.g., works by Freud, Einstein), with 'Mein Kampf' becoming a bestseller. Germanic classical music was promoted, while Jazz and Jewish composers were banned. Sports, especially the 1936 Berlin Olympics, were used to showcase German strength and 'Aryan superiority,' despite Jesse Owens' victories challenging this narrative. Theater focused on glorifying German history and Nazi values, and liberal Cabaret clubs were shut down for promoting 'decadent' behavior.
Hitler sought to control Christian churches despite their opposing values (peace vs. violence, racial superiority). He initially promised respect to avoid conflict. For the Catholic Church, a 1933 concordat with the Pope ensured worship freedom in exchange for political neutrality. However, Hitler quickly violated it, removing crucifixes, censoring papers, and closing Catholic schools. Pope Pius XI's 1937 criticism ("Mitt brennender Sorge") led to retaliation: reduced funding, Gestapo surveillance, and priests' arrests. For the Protestant Church, the Nazis formed the Reich Church in 1933, led by Ludwig Müller, promoting Nazi ideology and banning Jewish individuals from baptism. However, Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer formed the Pastors' Emergency League, evolving into the Confessing Church, which opposed Nazi interference. Many were arrested and sent to concentration camps, like Niemöller. These actions significantly weakened religious opposition, leading to a decline in traditional Christian beliefs by 1939.
The Nazis overturned liberal Weimar policies for women, promoting the 'Kinder, Küche, Kirche' (children, kitchen, church) ideal. Women were discouraged from makeup, trousers, and slimming, instead embracing a 'natural look.' Education focused on domestic skills and motherhood, and female entry into higher education and professions was restricted, with many female doctors, teachers, and lawyers sacked. To combat declining birth rates, policies like the 1933 'Law for the Encouragement of Marriage' offered loans for women who left work, partially forgiven with each child. Contraception and abortion were banned, divorce laws favored men, and the 'Motherhood Medal' celebrated large families. The 'Lebensborn' program encouraged Aryan women to have children with SS men. Simultaneously, the 1933 'Law for the Prevention of Diseased Offspring' led to forced sterilization of women deemed 'unfit.' While birth rates increased by 1939, rearmament led to labor shortages, forcing a relaxation of employment restrictions, and many women felt restricted and dissatisfied.
The Nazis aimed to indoctrinate German youth to ensure loyalty. Children were encouraged to report dissent, creating a culture of mistrust. Ideal boys were disciplined soldiers, while girls were prepared as wives and mothers. The Hitler Youth became compulsory by 1939, absorbing all other youth groups. Boys (Little Fellows, Young Folk, Hitler Youth) progressed through military-style training; girls (Young Girls, League of German Maidens) focused on domestic skills, racial hygiene, and allegiance to Hitler. Education was purged of non-Nazi ideas: textbooks needed approval, geography taught 'Lebensraum,' history glorified German victories, maths included racial calculations, science focused on weapon-making, and PE doubled. A new subject, Eugenics, taught 'Aryan superiority.' Teachers had to join the German Teachers' League, swear loyalty to Hitler, and incorporate Nazi symbols. University attendance declined, and many academics were dismissed.
When Nazis came to power in 1933, 6 million Germans were unemployed. Their 'work and bread' promise led to significant unemployment reduction by 1939. Methods included extensive Public Works projects (Autobahns, hospitals), massive rearmament (trebling military spending by 1939), and the National Labor Service (RAD), which conscripted men for manual labor. Conscription into the army (growing from 100,000 to 1.36 million by 1939) also absorbed many unemployed. However, this success masked 'invisible unemployment': women, Jewish people, RAD workers, part-time workers, and prisoners were excluded from statistics. The recovery was also fragile, relying heavily on unsustainable borrowing for rearmament. While official wages rose, so did the cost of living and working hours. The German Labor Front (DAF) replaced trade unions, controlling workers' rights and conditions. Programs like 'Strength Through Joy' offered leisure activities, and 'Beauty of Labor' fostered improved workplaces, though often funded by wage deductions. Workers lost key rights, like the ability to strike, despite reduced unemployment.
Nazi racial beliefs were rooted in the idea of a 'Master Race' (Aryans—blonde, blue-eyed, tall, athletic) destined to rule. They deemed 'inferior' groups like Jewish people, Slavs, Roma/Sinti, homosexuals, and black people as 'untermenschen' (subhuman), believing they didn't deserve to live. Hitler detailed these ideas in 'Mein Kampf,' aiming to create an 'Aryan' Germany. 'Undesirables' also included criminals, prostitutes, Jehovah's Witnesses, political opponents, and those with physical or learning disabilities, who were seen as harming the 'purity' of the German race. Eugenics, a concept aiming to 'improve' the human race, was employed to prevent 'undesirables' from having children.
Slavs from Eastern Europe were viewed as racially inferior and a threat. Roma and Sinti ('gypsies') were also deemed inferior; laws banned intermarriage in 1935, and the 1938 'struggle against the Gypsy plague' law led to forced registration and concentration camp internment. Homosexual men were deemed morally corrupt and anti-Aryan; laws were strengthened, leading to 8,000 imprisonments by 1938 and brutal conditions in concentration camps (pink triangles). Black people faced discrimination, intermarriage bans, and forced sterilization (1935). The Nazis downplayed Jesse Owens' 1936 Olympic victories to preserve 'Aryan superiority.' People with disabilities were seen as a burden; the 1933 sterilization law forcibly sterilized up to 700,000 people. The 1939 T4 program escalated to euthanasia for disabled infants and children, and later adults with mental illnesses, resulting in over 70,000 deaths before public protests officially halted it in 1941.
Antisemitism in Europe has ancient roots, blaming Jews for Christ's death, later associating them with wealth and power (usury), leading to expulsions (e.g., England, 1290) and violent pogroms in Russia. Conspiracy theories fueled widespread hatred, setting the stage for Nazi policies. By 1933, 500,000 Jews lived in Germany. Hitler used them as scapegoats for Germany's problems, portraying them as evil through propaganda. From 1933-1939, laws gradually pushed Jews out: dismissal of lawyers/judges (March 1933), sports club bans, firing of teachers, and nationwide boycotts of Jewish businesses (April 1933). Race studies in schools (Sept 1933) indoctrinated hatred. Jewish shops were marked (Jan 1934). The 1935 Nuremberg Laws stripped Jews of citizenship and banned intermarriage, forcing them to wear the Star of David and isolating them from public life. By 1936, property bans (electrical equipment, bicycles) impoverished them. Dismissal of doctors (Jan 1938) denied their livelihoods. Kristallnacht (Nov 1938) saw widespread destruction of Jewish property and murders, with compensation demands from the victims. Further restrictions (ban from public pools, children's play) and the establishment of the Reich Office for Jewish Immigration (1939) aimed to force emigration. Evictions and curfews (April/Sept 1939) further restricted their lives. The Kinder transport rescued 10,000 Jewish children from Nazi-occupied Europe to Britain (1938-1940), but most parents perished in the Holocaust.
The Nazi regime enjoyed significant support, evidenced by strong electoral showings for Hitler in 1932. This was fueled by extensive censorship, propaganda campaigns, and genuine successes like reduced unemployment and economic stabilization. However, opposition, though difficult to measure due to fear, did exist. Organized political parties and trade unions were banned, and the Gestapo ruthlessly suppressed dissent. Nevertheless, everyday resistance manifested as private grumbling, anti-Nazi jokes, worker absenteeism, black market activities, and individuals protecting opponents by not reporting them. These subtle acts demonstrated underlying dissatisfaction despite the pervasive atmosphere of fear and control.
The Catholic Church, initially protected by a 1933 concordat, faced Nazi erosion of its autonomy, notably through the closing of Catholic schools. In response, some priests spoke out against Nazi policies, facing arrest and imprisonment (e.g., 400 priests sent to Dachau). The Protestant Church saw the creation of the Reich Church (1936) to align with Nazi ideology. However, in 1933, Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer formed the Pastors' Emergency League, evolving into the Confessing Church by 1934. This movement opposed Nazi interference and upheld biblical teachings. Despite 6,000 pastors joining, around 800 were sent to concentration camps, like Niemöller. Overall, church opposition was limited, focusing more on religious autonomy than overt political resistance.
After 1933, some young people, disliking the strictness of Nazi youth groups, formed alternative groups. The Edelweiss Pirates, emerging in the late 1930s (mainly working class), adopted American fashions, mocked Hitler Youth, and organized defiant hikes. The Swing Youth (wealthy middle-class teenagers) embraced British/American culture, listened to banned jazz, and held illegal dances. Before 1939, this youth opposition was mainly social, involving minor acts like jokes and graffiti, with relatively small numbers compared to the Hitler Youth. Political opposition came from banned groups operating secretly. The Communist Party (KPD) encouraged worker resistance. The Social Democratic Party (SPD), banned after 1933, formed 'SOPADE' abroad to inform the world about Nazi realities and rally international opposition. Both faced severe repression, limiting their direct impact within Germany.