Summary
Highlights
By the 1890s, over half of immigrants came from Southern and Eastern Europe, often Catholic or Jewish, seeking work and escaping persecution. They faced new 'scientific' theories of race that fueled discrimination. The Immigration Restriction League pushed for legislative limits on immigration, and while President Cleveland vetoed one such bill, discrimination against Chinese immigrants was widespread.
Chinese immigrants, primarily men, came to the West for mining and railroad work but faced severe prejudice, leading to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. They experienced segregation and violence, but also fought back through the courts, securing landmark Supreme Court decisions in Yick Wo v. Hopkins (1886) and United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898) that affirmed some of their rights.
The period between 1901 and World War I saw 13 million immigrants arrive in the U.S., part of a larger global migration trend. Immigrants were drawn to America by opportunities in industrialization and agriculture, with relatively cheap and fast passage by steamship. Recruiters actively sought labor in Europe.
The Lower East Side of Manhattan became a hub for immigrants, leading to the proliferation of crowded and unsanitary tenement buildings that often doubled as workspaces. While transportation improvements like elevated railroads and subways helped traffic, they also facilitated residential segregation. The close proximity of extreme wealth and poverty in Gilded Age cities highlighted growing social and economic inequality, leading to calls for progressive reform movements.
From the mid-19th century, America experienced significant population growth, with a 'second golden age' of agriculture driven by increased demand from growing cities. Between 1880 and 1920, the percentage of Americans living in cities drastically increased, transforming the nation from predominantly rural to largely urban and establishing it as the world's largest industrial power. This urbanization brought new technological advancements and cultural changes.
New York City, especially after its consolidation in 1898, became a prime example of rapid urban growth, with Manhattan alone housing over 2 million people by the turn of the century. Chicago also saw massive expansion, becoming the second-largest city and undertaking impressive feats like reversing the flow of its river. This growth was largely fueled by immigration.
Immigration was a continuous phenomenon in the U.S. The mid-19th century saw a significant wave of Irish immigrants, many fleeing the potato famine, who largely settled in cities and took on low-wage labor. German immigrants, including many farmers and skilled artisans, also arrived, with some contributing to industries like brewing and settling in Midwestern cities.