Summary
Highlights
The Parthenon, a massive marble temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, stands atop a rocky outcropping in Athens, overlooking the city and the Aegean Sea. Built in the 5th century during Athens' most powerful period, it became a symbol of democracy's birth and architectural refinement. Its influence is evident in many Western buildings, especially in Washington D.C., reflecting its association with democratic ideals, though Athenian democracy was limited to a small percentage of its population.
Athens is named after its patron goddess, Athena. A myth tells of a contest between Athena and Poseidon for the city's patronage. Poseidon offered naval superiority (saltwater from a rock), while Athena offered peace and prosperity (an olive tree). The Athenians chose Athena's gift. Ancient sites on the Acropolis were believed to show evidence of both gods' offerings, with a modern olive tree replanted at Athena's legendary spot.
The Parthenon is primarily a Doric temple, characterized by massive columns with shallow flutes, simple capitals, and a direct resting on the stylobate. Despite being Doric, it incorporates Ionic elements, such as a frieze running around the building and four Ionic columns inside the west end. The temple was adorned with extensive sculptures, including metopes depicting Greeks battling various enemies (Amazons, Trojans, Centaurs, Titans), symbolizing Athenian triumph, civilization over barbarism, and rational thought over chaos. Phidias is believed to have overseen these sculptures. The pediment sculptures above the entrance showed the contest between Athena and Poseidon.
The Parthenon was built after the previous temple to Athena was destroyed by the Persians. This invasion had a profound impact on the Athenians. Initially, they vowed never to clear the ruins, but a generation later, after a peace treaty with Persia, Pericles initiated an expensive building campaign. This was funded by the treasury of the Delian League, an alliance of Greek city-states whose funds were meant for defense against Persia but were moved to Athens and used for the Parthenon's construction.
The Parthenon was not a place of worship in the modern sense but served as a treasury, housing valuable items and the gold and ivory sculpture of Athena. It was brightly colored, unlike its current pristine white appearance. Symbolically, its prominent position on the Acropolis showcased Athens' wealth and power and served as a gift to Athena, reflecting the Greek belief in understanding the divine through mathematics and expressing it in structures.
The Parthenon's perceived perfection is a result of subtle optical corrections. The architects, Iktinos and Kallikrates, used precise mathematics to counteract human perceptual flaws. The building appears rectilinear but has almost no true right angles. Columns exhibit 'entasis,' a slight bulge (11/16th of an inch) about a third of the way up, giving them a dynamic, organic feel. The stylobate is not flat; its center rises slightly (4 3/8 inches on the long side, 2 3/8 inches on the short side) so it appears level. Additionally, columns at the edges are positioned slightly closer together to create a uniform sense of density across the facade, despite the challenges this created for the Doric order's triglyph and metope arrangement.
The Parthenon's general proportions adhere to the mathematical ratio of X = Y times two plus one, seen in its 8 columns on the front and 17 on the sides. This ratio also governs column spacing and diameter. The interior featured an exterior colonnade, a solid masonry wall, and rooms on the east and west. The larger east room housed the nearly 40-foot-tall monumental sculpture of Athena, surrounded by a U-shaped arrangement of two-story Doric columns.
The Parthenon survived relatively intact for 2000 years, serving as a Greek temple, then a Greek Orthodox church, a Roman Catholic church, and a mosque. Its destruction occurred in the 17th century when it was used by the Ottomans as an ammunition store and exploded during an attack by the Venetians. In the 18th century, Lord Elgin removed many fallen sculptures, now known as the Elgin Marbles, to England. While some argue Elgin preserved them, Greece has built a museum awaiting their potential return, reflecting a long history of contested ownership and claims over the Parthenon's artifacts.
The Parthenon, despite extensive restoration efforts, remains a powerful monument. It embodies a beautiful balance between theoretical mathematical concepts and physical expression, reflecting the Greek belief in understanding the divine through logic. It stands as an offering to Athena and a testament to the brilliance of the Athenians and, by extension, the enduring human spirit.