Summary
Highlights
Historians often define the 19th century in European politics from 1815 to 1914, rather than the literal 1801-1900. This period begins with the defeat of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna, and ends with the outbreak of World War I, marking significant shifts in European power and societal structures.
The Congress of Vienna convened to reshape Europe after Napoleon's initial defeat. Napoleon's escape from exile and subsequent defeat at Waterloo interrupted their work, but the Congress reconvened with harsher terms for France, focusing on reinstating traditional monarchies and establishing a balance of power to prevent future domination by any single nation.
Leading statesmen from the major powers attended, including Klemens von Metternich of Austria, widely regarded as the dominant political figure of the first half of the 19th century. Other significant attendees included Prince von Hardenberg of Prussia, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Lord Castlereagh of Britain, and Prince Talleyrand of France, a notorious political survivor.
Klemens von Metternich, host and central figure of the Congress, was a staunch conservative who opposed liberalism and nationalism. He understood that Europe could not revert to its pre-French Revolution state but sought to maintain as much of the old order as possible. He recognized the changing social and economic forces, but saw an opportunity from 1815-1830 to reassert conservative principles and preserve stability.
The Congress imposed an indemnity on France, occupied parts of its territory, and restored the Bourbon monarchy. Prussia gained control of the Rhineland and Saxony, Russia acquired Finland and parts of Poland, and Austria regained territory in Italy. England secured strategic naval bases. Germany was reorganized into a 38-state Confederation, and many pre-revolutionary rulers were restored. These measures aimed to contain France and foster long-term European peace.
Traditionally, the Congress of Vienna was seen as a success, contributing to a relatively peaceful 19th century in Europe, leading to the 'Concert of Europe.' This informal pact involved major powers agreeing to cooperate in times of crisis to maintain international and internal stability, often at the expense of liberal and nationalist movements. Metternich successfully urged leaders to focus on internal threats (masses vs. elites) rather than solely external conflicts.
The period from 1815 to 1830 represented a 'conservative window' as exhausted Europeans yearned for peace and order after years of warfare. Metternich capitalized on this sentiment. However, internal dissent continued to surface, with revolutions in Spain (1820-23) crushed with French aid and uprisings in Italy (1821) suppressed by Austrian troops. The Decembrist revolt in Russia (1825), led by liberal-minded military officers, demonstrated growing dissatisfaction and resulted in the establishment of a brutal secret police.
The conservative era ended with a wave of revolutions in 1830-1832, beginning in France with the July Revolution, which toppled another regime. This sparked similar uprisings across Europe, including rebellions in the Italian states and Poland, suppressed by Austrian and Russian forces respectively. Belgium successfully broke away from Holland, forming a new independent Catholic country. These events highlighted the persistent instability stemming from the French Revolution of 1789.