Summary
Highlights
By the late 19th century, segregation was deeply ingrained in the South. In December 1960, a Supreme Court ruling declared segregated facilities for interstate bus, train, and plane passengers unconstitutional. Five months later, the Freedom Rides, organized by James Farmer of CORE, launched to enforce this ruling through nonviolent direct action.
As the Freedom Riders traveled south, they faced increasing hostility. Martin Luther King Jr. warned them of dangers in Alabama. John Lewis, then a 21-year-old divinity student, was among the first to be attacked for attempting to use a white-only waiting room in Rock Hill, South Carolina. Further south, they encountered more violence, arrests, and hostility.
Two of the most severe attacks occurred in Alabama. On May 14, 1961, a Greyhound bus carrying Freedom Riders was firebombed near Anniston. Later that day, in Birmingham, Freedom Riders were savagely beaten by the Ku Klux Klan. College professor Walter Bergman and minister Reverend B. Elton Cox, both attacked, remained defiant and urged others to join the cause. A week later, Jim Zwerg was brutally attacked in Montgomery, demonstrating his commitment to nonviolence by not retaliating.
As attacks continued, the National Guard was called; however, their presence sometimes seemed ambiguous. In Jackson, Mississippi, Riders were arrested for attempting to desegregate facilities. Many adopted a 'jail, no bail' tactic to overwhelm Mississippi's penal system, highlighting their unwavering commitment to the cause. Martin Luther King Jr. praised their courage and sacrifice.
While hundreds of Freedom Riders endured harsh prison conditions, civil rights leaders appealed to Washington. Attorney General Robert Kennedy pressured the Interstate Commerce Commission to issue a stronger ruling banning segregated facilities, which took effect on November 1, 1961. Although complete desegregation took more years, the Freedom Riders secured a significant victory in the fight against racism.