Summary
Highlights
The Lombards arrived in Italy in 569, led by Alboin, an event sometimes dated to 568 in older texts. Originating from Pannonia, they were a Germanic people, accompanied by Saxons and Bulgarians. According to an ancient myth, they left their land due to famine. They were called 'Longa Barba' (long beard) in honor of their warrior god Wotan, or due to their long beards which were never shaven, as recorded by Paul the Deacon.
Alboin, the tenth king of the Lombards according to Paul the Deacon's 'Historia Langobardorum,' was a formidable leader. He infamously used the skull of the defeated King Cunimund as a drinking cup, and married Cunimund's daughter, Rosmunda, whom he had captured. After his victories, he sought more conquests and invaded Italy, possibly at the invitation of the Byzantine general Narses. The Lombards occupied Friuli, conquering much of northern Italy (except coastal Liguria and Veneto), and establishing the southern duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. Cividale del Friuli became the first Lombard ducal capital.
The Lombards organized themselves into duchies, with powerful dukes serving as military leaders. The remaining Byzantine territories in Italy included Pentapolis, the Exarchate of Ravenna, and the Byzantine Corridor connecting Ravenna to Rome. This corridor divided the Lombard kingdom into a larger northern part and a smaller southern part. By 571, the Lombards completed their settlement, conquering Pavia (which became the capital) and Verona (a temporary capital). The Lombard invasion ended the political unity of Italy achieved by the Romans, creating a lasting division between Lombards and Byzantines that persisted until the Risorgimento in the 19th century. Lombard society was structured with a king (elected when needed), dukes, free men (arimanni) organized into 'farae' (family groups or warrior bands), semi-free men (aldii), and slaves.
Alboin was assassinated in 572, conspired against by his wife Rosmunda, possibly in revenge for being forced to drink from her father's skull. His successor, Cleph, was also assassinated shortly after. This led to the 'Decennio dei Duchi' (Decade of the Dukes) from 574 to 584, a period of instability and defeats against the Byzantines, as the dukes ruled autonomously. Due to rising threats from both Byzantines and Franks, a new king, Autari, was elected in 584.
Autari married Teodolinda, a Bavarian princess. However, Autari was also assassinated in a conspiracy. In 591, Teodolinda remarried Agilulf, who reigned until 616. Teodolinda played a crucial role in the Lombards' conversion to Catholicism, similar to Clovis's conversion of the Franks. Her son, Adaloaldo, was the first Lombard to be baptized with the Catholic rite. Teodolinda had strong ties with Pope Gregory the Great, building the church of San Giovanni in Monza and the Abbey of Bobbio.
A significant successor to Agilulf was Rothari, who reigned from 636 to 652. In 643, Rothari issued the Edict of Rothari, which compiled the oral customs of the Lombards into a written Latin code. This edict introduced laws and sought to limit the practice of blood feuds by promoting 'wergeld' (a monetary compensation). The Lombard kingdom continued to expand for almost another century. Liutprand, who ruled in the 8th century, attempted to unify the kingdom. In 728, Liutprand tried to conquer the Byzantine Corridor. However, through the intervention of the Pope, these lands were returned to the Exarchate, leading to the famous Donation of Sutri, a symbolic agreement where Liutprand granted the 'castrum' of Sutri to the Pope.
The Lombard kingdom eventually faced the Franks under Pippin the Short. Despite an initial peace treaty between King Desiderius of the Lombards and the Franks, it was short-lived. Ultimately, the Lombards were decisively subdued by Charlemagne, marking the end of their independent kingdom.