Summary
Highlights
The Industrial Revolution occurred in two stages: the First (1750-1830), primarily in Great Britain, powered by coal and steam engines; and the Second (mid-19th to early 20th century), which spread globally and introduced oil and new engines.
Coal, a hotter burning fuel than wood, powered the steam engine, developed by James Watt. This engine used steam to turn turbines, revolutionizing factory production by eliminating the need for factories to be near water and powering locomotives and steamships, dramatically increasing transport efficiency and global trade, especially with developments like the Suez Canal opening.
The mid-19th century saw the harnessing of oil, refined into products like gasoline, which fueled the smaller, more efficient internal combustion engine. This innovation would eventually power automobiles and significantly increased available human energy, though it came with environmental costs like air pollution.
Key technologies of the Second Industrial Revolution included steel, made stronger and cheaper through the Bessemer process, becoming the main building material for infrastructure. Chemical engineering developed synthetic dyes and vulcanized rubber for industrial and automotive use. Electricity, harnessed by Thomas Edison, powered light bulbs, factories, homes, and mass transit like streetcars and subways. The telegraph, invented by Samuel Morse, enabled instant long-distance communication, like the transatlantic cable connecting Britain and the US.
These new technologies had two significant effects: the development of interior regions globally due to railroads and instant communication via the telegraph, leading to new settlements and real-time market intelligence. Secondly, there was a profound increase in global trade and migration; global trade multiplied tenfold between 1850 and 1913, and massive migrations occurred from rural to urban centers and from Europe to the Americas, Australia, and South Africa.