Summary
Highlights
Mustafa Kemal arrived in Istanbul on November 13, 1918, after Mondros Armistice. Witnessing the Allied occupation ships in the Bosphorus, he famously remarked, "They came as they went." This period saw the dismantling of the Ottoman army, confiscated weapons, and the placement of high-ranking military officials like Mustafa Kemal and Kazım Karabekir in inactive positions, highlighting a state of helplessness and occupation.
Samsun was fraught with conflict between Greek gangs and Turkish resistance, as Greeks aimed to establish a Pontus Greek state under British supervision through demographic manipulation and violence. Mustafa Kemal was sent to Samsun as the 9th Army Inspector to restore order, disarm the local populace, and disband committees. However, he had his own agenda: to unite the Turkish people against occupation, rather than suppress them.
Mustafa Kemal, under the guise of health issues, moved to Havza to escape British surveillance in Samsun. Here, he issued the Havza Circular independently, advocating for nationwide protests against the occupation of Izmir. Crucially, he emphasized avoiding harm to minorities to prevent the activation of Article 7 of the Mondros Armistice. This circular marked the first public call for national resistance and aimed to awaken national consciousness.
Issued with key military commanders like Rauf Orbay and Ali Fuat Cebesoy, the Amasya Circular outlined the purpose, method, and program of the National Struggle. It declared the nation's independence and integrity to be at risk, criticizing the Istanbul government's inability to govern. The circular famously stated that "the nation's determination and decision will save its independence," hinting at national sovereignty. It also planned for congresses in Erzurum and Sivas and the formation of a representative body if the Istanbul government failed its duty. This document is regarded as the first blueprint for the National Struggle.
On July 8, 1919, after increasing pressure from the Istanbul government and its Allied overseers, Mustafa Kemal resigned from his military post and active duty in Erzurum. He declared his return to the "bosom of the nation" to continue the struggle as an individual. In a pivotal moment, Kazım Karabekir, commander of the 15th Army Corps, pledged his unwavering loyalty, stating, "I and my army corps are at your command as before." This act of defiance preserved the integrity of the nascent National Struggle.
The Erzurum Congress, organized by the Society for the Defense of Rights of Eastern Anatolia, was held from July 23 to August 7, 1919. Despite being regional in its convocation, it adopted national resolutions. Key decisions included the indivisibility of the homeland within national borders, the rejection of mandates and protectorates, and the assertion that national forces would be effective and national will sovereign. It also established the Representative Committee (Heyet-i Temsiliye) to act as a provisional government, highlighting the strong shift towards self-determination and laying the groundwork for a new, independent state.