Summary
Highlights
The Transcontinental Railroad, dubbed the engineering marvel of the 19th century, was also characterized by swindles and had profound impacts on the American West. It birthed new economies, consumed natural resources, and altered the lives of various communities. Key figures like Collis P. Huntington, Jack Casement, and Thomas C. Durant emerged, embodying both boldness and greed. The railroad represented 'manifest destiny,' aiming to unify the country by connecting East and West.
The idea of a railroad connecting the Atlantic and Pacific emerged in the 1830s. Engineer Theodore Judah, driven by the 'Pacific Railroad bug,' championed the project. Early projections of a transcontinental railroad faced skepticism due to the perceived 'useless' nature of much of the West and the immense difficulties of traversing vast distances, harsh environments, and dangerous encounters with Native Americans, as well as diseases, starvation, and accidents during overland travel to California.
The discovery of gold in California intensified the need for a railroad to protect the valuable state and facilitate trade. However, Congress was deadlocked over the starting point, with politicians like Stephen Douglas and Thomas Hart Benton advocating for routes that benefited their personal investments. Theodore Judah continued to push for the railroad, and a discovery of silver in Nevada in 1859 created financial incentive to build directly into the Sierra Nevada mountains. In 1860, Judah found a viable route through the Sierras at Donner Summit, which simplified the difficult crossing.
Judah and Daniel Strong formed the Central Pacific Railroad Company, attracting investors like Collis P. Huntington, Mark Hopkins, Charles Crocker, and Leland Stanford. These 'Big Four' merchants, despite initial reservations, saw potential in the project. Judah's detailed surveys in Washington D.C., outlining the challenges and costs of building through the Sierras, garnered crucial support. President Abraham Lincoln, seeking to unify the nation during the Civil War, signed the Pacific Railroad Act in 1862, granting land and bonds to the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific.
Despite Judah's efforts, tensions arose with the Big Four over construction methods and financial integrity, leading to a falling out. Judah's attempt to find new backers in the East was tragically cut short by illness, and he died in 1863. Meanwhile, President Lincoln chose Council Bluffs, Iowa, as the Eastern terminus for the Union Pacific, a decision influenced by political favors. This decision benefited Thomas Clark Durant, Vice President of the Union Pacific, who had invested heavily in real estate in nearby Omaha.
Thomas C. Durant was a manipulative businessman focused on personal profit. He illegally gained control of Union Pacific shares and used bribery to influence Congress, leading to the revised Railroad Bill of 1864, which increased land grants and financial incentives for the railroad companies. Durant then established the Credit Mobilier, a secret entity designed to funnel construction profits to himself and his allies, shielded by limited liability. His self-serving actions and inflated costs led to protests and resignations, but largely went unchecked by Congress.
The Central Pacific faced labor shortages, as Californians were drawn to goldfields or urban work. Charles Crocker, against initial skepticism, recruited Chinese immigrants, who proved to be diligent and effective workers. By 1866, Chinese immigrants comprised 80% of the CP workforce, enduring long hours, dangerous conditions, and lower pay than their white counterparts. Their resilience and ability to handle explosives like nitroglycerin were crucial in blasting through the granite of the Sierra Nevada, particularly at Cape Horn and the Summit Tunnel.
While the Central Pacific struggled in the mountains, the Union Pacific, under Chief Engineer Grenville M. Dodge and construction boss Jack Casement, made rapid progress across the flat prairies of Nebraska. However, their advance encroached upon the lands of the Cheyenne, Sioux, and Arapaho tribes. The railroad, coupled with the decimation of buffalo herds and increasing white settlement, led to violent clashes. Events like the Sand Creek Massacre escalated tensions, leading to raids on wagon trains and railroad infrastructure. Despite initial reluctance, General William T. Sherman eventually supported military intervention to protect railroad construction.
Life for Union Pacific laborers was harsh, with long hours, poor food, and unsanitary conditions. End-of-track towns, known as 'Hell on Wheels,' sprang up, offering gambling, saloons, and prostitution. These transient settlements were marked by extreme lawlessness and violence. Towns like Cheyenne and Laramie, though intended to be permanent, initially struggled with crime and vigilante justice as they became centers of Western culture and commerce. The rapid growth of Cheyenne, fueled by railroad speculation, also brought about destructive sentiments towards Native American populations.
The Central Pacific continued its arduous work through the Sierra tunnels, eventually turning to nitroglycerin to speed up blasting. Meanwhile, in the Union Pacific, the Ames brothers gained control from Durant, but corruption continued with the Credit Mobilier scandal. Oaks Ames distributed stock to congressmen, influencing legislation. A fierce rivalry developed between the two companies, driven by the land grants and subsidies tied to track laid. Both companies employed questionable construction practices and faced accusations of fraud, with shoddy work and financial mismanagement becoming rampant, especially in the Union Pacific where vital infrastructure was poorly built.
As the two lines neared completion, the competition intensified. Both companies pushed their crews to unprecedented speeds, laying miles of track in single days. The question of the meeting point remained contentious, requiring high-level negotiations. With the threat of congressional scrutiny, the companies agreed to meet at Promontory Summit, Utah. On May 10, 1869, the nation watched as the golden spike was driven, symbolizing the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad and uniting the country with an 'electrical circuit' of telegraphic news, creating a moment of national celebration and unity.
Despite its often poor initial construction, the Transcontinental Railroad fundamentally transformed America. It facilitated trade between Europe and Asia, spurred westward migration, and opened vast tracts of land for settlement. However, it also led to the further displacement and suffering of Native American tribes. The financial scandals, particularly the Credit Mobilier, brought down figures like Oaks Ames, though many others, including Durant and Huntington, escaped significant consequences. The railroad, while a symbol of national achievement and progress, also exposed deep-seated issues of corruption, exploitation, and the devastating impact of westward expansion on indigenous populations and the environment.