Summary
Highlights
The introduction defines empire beyond traditional conquest, covering various forms. It questions whether the U.S. became an empire after its independence, focusing on interventions in the Pacific, Latin America, and the Middle East, particularly during the Spanish-American War and the Roosevelt-Taft foreign policies. The discussion includes how American economic, political, and cultural power shaped other nations and the impact of imperialism and immigration on American identity, asking who qualified as an American and the nation's obligations to foreign peoples.
This section details American interventions motivated by economic interests. It highlights the Open Door Policy in China and the U.S. military's involvement in putting down the Boxer Rebellion. The Guano Islands Act of 1856 is discussed as a precedent for territorial acquisitions. The role of missionaries in Hawaii and China, who often merged with business interests, is also explored, leading to American economic dominance in places like Hawaii. The chapter then shifts to aggressive U.S. interventionism in Latin America, notably in Mexico during its revolution, and the U.S.'s contrasting approach in the Middle East through education, science, and humanitarian aid rather than direct trade or military intervention.
The Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars marked a significant turning point in U.S. foreign policy. The conflict with Spain was sparked by Cuban independence efforts and the sinking of the USS Maine, fueled by sensationalist journalism. The U.S. quickly defeated Spain, acquiring Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines through the Treaty of Paris. This led to debates about American imperialism and the nation's role as a colonizer, particularly in the Philippines where a brutal war of occupation ensued against Filipino insurrectionists. The section also covers the annexation of Hawaii and the ideological conflicts surrounding American expansion, with both supporters highlighting economic and political advantages, and critics from groups like the American Anti-Imperialist League advocating self-governance and expressing concerns about racial identity and immigration.
Theodore Roosevelt’s leadership solidified the U.S.'s global power through military strength, territorial expansion, and economic influence. His emphasis on developing the American navy, influenced by Alfred Thayer Mahan's theories, led to the construction of battleships and the global tour of the 'Great White Fleet.' Roosevelt's 'big stick' diplomacy asserted U.S. hegemony in the Western Hemisphere, particularly in Latin America, leading to interventions in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Panama. The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine justified the U.S. acting as an international police power, intervening in Caribbean and Latin American nations to ensure stability and protect American interests, often through 'dollar diplomacy' involving financial supervision and loan agreements.
This section reveals that American imperialism involved significant participation from women, challenging the perception of it as a solely masculine enterprise. White middle-class Christian women served as missionaries, teachers, medical professionals, and business representatives, projecting an image of American domesticity and values abroad. The concept of 'civilization' underpinning imperialism was highly gendered, positioning white women as symbols and vehicles for transmitting American ideals. While many women supported these efforts as an extension of their domestic and charitable roles, others, like Jane Addams and Ida B. Wells, actively opposed imperialism, seeing it as linked to violence, racial antagonism, and hypocrisy, drawing parallels between the treatment of African Americans at home and Filipinos abroad.
Imperialism and immigration are presented as intertwined issues at the turn of the century. American women's involvement in both imperialist and anti-imperialist activities demonstrated how foreign policy concerns became domesticated. The influx of over 25 million immigrants from 1870 to 1920, particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe and Asia, raised anxieties among native-born Americans. Nativists feared that new arrivals were unfit for democracy, would take jobs, or brought radical ideas. This led to federal legislation like the Page Act of 1875 and the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, limiting or banning immigration based on race and perceived threats to American society. The section highlights the challenges faced by Catholic immigrants, who, despite growing numbers, encountered anti-Catholicism and internal debates about assimilation within the church. Pope Leo XIII's intervention underscored the tension between maintaining religious tradition and adapting to American life, illustrating the broader struggles between native-born and foreign-born Americans.
The conclusion reaffirms that American imperialism, though intense for a relatively brief period, established new patterns that continued into the 20th century. The U.S. embraced its cultural, economic, and religious influence, backed by military power, to exert control over other nations. The experiences of those affected by U.S. expansionist policies, whether as formal subjects or unwilling partners under 'Roosevelt's big stick,' highlighted the new American ambitions. Debates over immigration and imperialism underscored the interconnectedness of international and domestic policy, demonstrating how imperial actions and ideas profoundly shaped domestic questions, such as attitudes towards immigration in American cities.