AP Human Geography Unit 4 Review (Everything You Need To Know!)

A state is a geographic area with a permanent population, defined borders, a sovereign government, and international recognition. A nation is a group of people with shared culture, history, and a desire for self-governance. Key political entities include nation-states (e.g., Japan), multinational states (e.g., Canada), multi-state nations (e.g., Kurds), stateless nations (e.g., Basques, Kurds), autonomous regions (e.g., Native American reservations), and semi-autonomous regions (e.g., Hong Kong).

Colonialism involves acquiring and settling territories for political, economic, and social control, while imperialism is exerting force over other nations for economic and political power without direct settlement. Both diffused cultures but often imposed the colonizer's culture. European powers created political boundaries in Africa (e.g., Berlin Conference) and Asia (e.g., China) that benefited them, leading to conflicts after decolonization. Decolonization is when colonies gain independence, often still relying on former colonial powers and experiencing internal conflicts due to inherited boundaries.

Territoriality is the establishment and defense of a geographic area. More developed countries use neocolonialism (indirect power) to influence less developed countries, often exploiting resources and labor (e.g., China's influence in Africa through investments and loans). Shatter belts (e.g., Eastern Europe during the Cold War, the Korean Peninsula) are regions caught between larger conflicting powers. Choke points (e.g., Panama Canal, Strait of Hormuz) are strategic geographic areas that countries seek to control due to their importance for navigation and trade.

Boundaries are defined, delimited (drawn on a map), and demarcated (physical markers). Types include geometric (straight lines, e.g., 49th parallel), antecedent (pre-human settlement, e.g., Andes Mountains), relic (no longer active but impacting cultural landscape, e.g., Berlin Wall), superimposed (imposed by external powers without local consideration, e.g., African borders from Berlin Conference), subsequent (develop with cultural landscape, e.g., European borders), and consequent (created to separate cultural groups, e.g., India and Pakistan). A 'terra nullius' is an area without state control.

International boundaries separate sovereign states, while internal boundaries divide regions within a state, distributing power. Boundary disputes include definitional (interpreting documents), locational (disputes over original location, e.g., Mississippi River shifts), operational (different management ideas, e.g., India-Pakistan over Kashmir), and allocational (disputes over resources, e.g., oil). The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defines territorial waters (12 nautical miles), contiguous zone (12-24 nautical miles), and exclusive economic zones (24-200 nautical miles) for resource control.

Internal boundaries, like congressional districts or voting districts, are established by governments. Redistricting occurs after a census to reflect population changes. Gerrymandering, the redrawing of districts to favor one political party, uses tactics like cracking (spreading voters across districts) and packing (concentrating voters into a few districts). This leads to unfair representation, reduced competition, and weakens democracy, though both major parties in the U.S. engage in it.

Unitary states centralize power at the national level, creating uniform laws and policies (common in smaller, homogeneous states like nation-states). They can be efficient but may ignore local needs. Federal states distribute power between national and regional governments (common in large, diverse states or those with isolated populations). Federalism addresses local issues and minority needs but can be less efficient and more prone to devolution.

Devolution is the transfer of power from central to regional governments. Factors include physical geography (isolation leading to distinct cultures), cultural divisions (ethnic separatism like Basques, Catalans, Kurds, or Nigeria's diverse groups), linguistic differences (e.g., Belgium's Flemish and Walloon communities), political instability (high crime, terrorism), economic/social inequalities, government corruption (e.g., ethnic cleansing in Myanmar), and irredentism (a nation seeking to unite parts of its group within another state, e.g., Russian-Ukrainian conflict). Strong devolutionary pressures can lead to state disintegration (e.g., Sudan, Soviet Union).

Technological advancements (social media, internet) empower citizens, facilitate information sharing, reduce autocratic control (e.g., Arab Spring), and promote democratization. Globalization makes countries interdependent due to global markets (e.g., reliance on oil), influencing political decisions. Supranational organizations (alliances of three or more countries) challenge sovereignty by requiring members to follow shared rules. These organizations can be political (UN, African Union, NATO), economic (EU, ASEAN), or environmental (Arctic Council), uniting states for common goals despite some loss of autonomy.

Centrifugal forces divide people or states, including uneven economic/social development, cultural differences (language, religion), negative stereotypes, and corrupt governments. These can lead to failed states (loss of functioning government) or ethnic nationalist movements (cultural group seeking separation/control). Centripetal forces unite people or states, such as strong patriotism, equal economic/social opportunities, lack of corruption/discrimination, shared history/language/religion, and strong national governments. Ethno-nationalism can also be centripetal in nation-states like Japan.